{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:43:33Z","timestamp":1791459813916,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]],"date-time":"2021-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632096000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Air pollutants include toxic particles and gases emitted in large quantities from many different combustible materials. They also include particulate matter (PM) and ozone, and biological contaminants, such as viruses and bacteria, which can penetrate the human airway and reach the bloodstream, triggering airway inflammation, dysfunction, and fibrosis. Pollutants that accumulate in the lungs exacerbate symptoms of respiratory diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Asthma, a heterogeneous disease with complex pathological mechanisms, is characterized by particular symptoms such as shortness of breath, a tight chest, coughing, and wheezing. Patients with COPD often experience exacerbations and worsening of symptoms, which may result in hospitalization and disease progression. PM varies in terms of composition, and can include solid and liquid particles of various sizes. PM concentrations are higher in urban areas. Ozone is one of the most toxic photochemical air pollutants. In general, air pollution decreases quality of life and life expectancy. It exacerbates acute and chronic respiratory symptoms in patients with chronic airway diseases, and increases the morbidity and risk of hospitalization associated with respiratory diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. Therefore, we reviewed the impact of air pollutants on airway diseases such as asthma and COPD, focusing on their underlying mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18189905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,21]],"date-time":"2021-09-21T08:04:23Z","timestamp":1632211463000},"page":"9905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":146,"title":["Effects of Air Pollutants on Airway Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Yun-Gi","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, 170 Jomaru-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon 14584, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pureun-Haneul","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, 170 Jomaru-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon 14584, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seon-Muk","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, 170 Jomaru-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon 14584, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Min-Hyeok","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, 170 Jomaru-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon 14584, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"An-Soo","family":"Jang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, 170 Jomaru-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon 14584, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2007.08.012","article-title":"Common household activities are associated with elevated particulate matter concentrations in bedrooms of inner-city Baltimore preschool children","volume":"106","author":"McCormack","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-020-00802-0","article-title":"Concentrations of bacteria and bacterial and fungal spores calculated from chemical tracers associated with size-segregated aerosol in a composting plant","volume":"13","author":"Pomata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2017.10.019","article-title":"A systematic review of the public health risks of bioaerosols from intensive farming","volume":"221","author":"Douglas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.05.053","article-title":"A review on recent progress in observations, and health effects of bioaerosols","volume":"18","author":"Humbal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30752-2","article-title":"Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"396","author":"Abbafati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1398-9995.2003.00205.x","article-title":"Epidemiologic evidence of a relationship between airway hyperresponsiveness and exposure to polluted air","volume":"58","author":"Jang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32366-8","article-title":"Global, Regional, and National Comparative Risk Assessment of 84 Behavioural, Environmental and Occupational, and Metabolic Risks or Clusters of Risks, 1990\u22122016: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","author":"Gakidou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2019.06.009","article-title":"Ultrafine, fine and coarse airborne particle mass concentration in workplaces","volume":"10","author":"Buiarelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.01.013","article-title":"Ultrafine particles in cities","volume":"66","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-0403-3","article-title":"The health effects of ultrafine particles","volume":"52","author":"Schraufnagel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-0405-1","article-title":"Ultrafine particles: Unique physicochemical properties relevant to health and disease","volume":"52","author":"Kwon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Health Effects Institute (2019). State of Global Air 2019: Air Pollution a Significant Risk Factor Worldwide, Health Effects Institute."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (2003). Guidelines for Developing an Air Quality (Ozone and PM2.5) Forecasting Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication No.EPA-456\/R-03\u2013002."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S14","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.1997.tb04864.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of allergic diseases","volume":"52","author":"Ring","year":"1997","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haryanto, B. (2012). Air Pollution: A Comprehensive Perspective, Intech.","DOI":"10.5772\/2591"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-0394-0","article-title":"Mechanisms of ultrafine particle-induced respiratory health effects","volume":"52","author":"Leikauf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-010-8180-z","article-title":"Ambient ozone and pulmonary innate immunity","volume":"49","author":"Robert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.11.044","article-title":"Ozone exposure induces respiratory barrier biphasic injury and inflammation controlled by IL-33","volume":"142","author":"Michaudel","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11274-8","article-title":"Air pollution and health","volume":"360","author":"Brunekreef","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00031112","article-title":"Chronic burden of near-roadway traffic pollution in 10 European cities (APHEKOM network)","volume":"42","author":"Perez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02653-2","article-title":"Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: A European assessment","volume":"356","author":"Kaiser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1987.63.3.996","article-title":"Ozone exposure alters tracheobronchial mucociliary function in humans","volume":"63","author":"Foster","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb\/4.1.72","article-title":"Exposure of humans to ambient levels of ozone for 6.6 h causes cellular and biochemical changes in the lung","volume":"4","author":"Devlin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200403-333OC","article-title":"Acute effects of ozone on mortality from the \u201cair pollution and health: A European approach\u201d project","volume":"170","author":"Gryparis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1996.81.3.1143","article-title":"Regional clearance of solute from the respiratory epithelia: 18\u201320 h postexposure to ozone","volume":"81","author":"Foster","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1999.86.2.641","article-title":"Regional clearance of solute from peripheral airway epithelia: Recovery after sublobar exposure to ozone","volume":"86","author":"Foster","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3762","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b05833","article-title":"Global Estimates of Fine Particulate Matter using a Combined Geophysical-Statistical Method with Information from Satellites, Models, and Monitors","volume":"50","author":"Martin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1114397","article-title":"Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel","volume":"311","author":"Nel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/10590500802494538","article-title":"Airborne particulate matter and human health: Toxicological assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanisms","volume":"26","author":"Valavanidis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-2664","article-title":"Oxidative stress in COPD","volume":"144","author":"Kirkham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110703","article-title":"Impact of long-term exposure to ambient air pollution on the incidence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"194","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2006). WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide: Global Update 2005: Summary of Risk Assessment, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.11.012","article-title":"Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and risk of development of childhood asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"100","author":"Khreis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maheswaran, D., Zeng, Y., Chan-Yeung, M., Scott, J., Osornio-Vargas, A., Becker, A.B., and Kozyrskyj, A.L. (2014). Exposure to beta-(1,3)-D-glucan in house dust at age 7\u201310 is associated with airway hyperresponsiveness and atopic asthma by age 11\u201314. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098878"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-721-2009","article-title":"Microbiology and atmospheric processes: Biological, physical and chemical characterization of aerosol particles","volume":"6","author":"Georgakopoulos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"187","article-title":"Bioaerosol health effects and exposure assessment: Progress and prospects","volume":"47","author":"Douwes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.02.006","article-title":"Bioaerosol exposure from composting facilities and health outcomes inworkers and in the community: A systematic review update","volume":"222","author":"Robertson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmr.2017.10.005","article-title":"Microparticules membranaires et maladies respiratoires [Membranous microparticles and respiratory disease]","volume":"34","author":"Toussaint","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Mal. Respir."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.26719\/emhj.18.014","article-title":"Global prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Varmaghani","year":"2019","journal-title":"East. Mediterr. Health J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pu.15.050194.000543","article-title":"Acute respiratory effects of particulate air pollution","volume":"15","author":"Dockery","year":"1994","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1183\/09059180.05.00009502","article-title":"Impact of environmental factors on lung defences","volume":"14","author":"Olivieri","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2017-209948","article-title":"Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and acute bronchitis in children: Season and age as modifiers","volume":"72","author":"Bai","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.05.026","article-title":"Concentrations and health effects of short- and long-term exposure to PM2.5, NO2, and O3 in ambient air of Ahvaz city, Iran (2014\u20132017)","volume":"180","author":"Karimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2012.12.010","article-title":"Comparing ozone metrics on associations with outpatient visits for respiratory diseases in Taipei Metropolitan area","volume":"177","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2015.1101407","article-title":"Single and combined effects of air pollutants on circulatory and respiratory system-related mortality in Belgrade, Serbia","volume":"79","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"647","article-title":"Acute Effects of Individual Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter on Pulmonary Function in Schoolchildren","volume":"33","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782462","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/782462","article-title":"The adverse effects of air pollution on the nervous system","volume":"2012","author":"Genc","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.2011.03776.x","article-title":"Air pollution and airway disease","volume":"41","author":"Kelly","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00128712","article-title":"Air pollution and multiple acute respiratory outcomes","volume":"42","author":"Faustini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"44","article-title":"Air pollution and heart disease","volume":"7","author":"Watson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiotiu, A.I., Novakova, P., Nedeva, D., Chong-Neto, H.J., Novakova, S., Steiropoulos, P., and Kowal, K. (2020). Impact of Air Pollution on Asthma Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176212"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.09.070","article-title":"Air pollution and asthma attacks in children: A case-crossover analysis in the city of Chongqing, China","volume":"220","author":"Ding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.12.298","article-title":"Air pollutants and asthma patient visits: Indication of source influence","volume":"625","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.03.008","article-title":"Fullchain health impact assessment of traffic-related air pollution and childhood asthma","volume":"114","author":"Khreis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2015.03.040","article-title":"Hourly differences in air pollution on the risk of asthma exacerbation","volume":"203","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.08.038","article-title":"The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on childhood wheezing and asthma: A systematic review","volume":"159","author":"Hehua","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2013.05.007","article-title":"A review on human health perspective of air pollution with respect to allergies and asthma","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.12.122","article-title":"Impact evaluation of environmental factors on respiratory function of asthma patients living in urban territory","volume":"235","author":"Veremchuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.06.029","article-title":"Fine particulate air pollution and hospital visits for asthma in Beijing, China","volume":"230","author":"Tian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000016","article-title":"Asthma morbidity and ambient air pollution: Effect modification by residential traffic-related air pollution","volume":"25","author":"Delfino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802194","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02194-2018","article-title":"Outdoor air pollution and the burden of childhood asthma across Europe","volume":"54","author":"Khreis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.109067","article-title":"Health equity and burden of childhood asthma-related to air pollution in Barcelona","volume":"22","author":"Pierangeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12561","article-title":"The influence of childhood traffic-related air pollution exposure on asthma, allergy and sensitization: A systematic review and a meta-analysis of birth cohort studies","volume":"70","author":"Bowatte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"GINA Reports (2020, June 13). Global Initiative for Asthma-GINA. Available online: https:\/\/ginasthma.org\/gina-reports\/."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202001-046ST","article-title":"Outdoor Air Pollution and New-Onset Airway Disease. An Official American Thoracic Society Workshop Report","volume":"17","author":"Thurston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2019.03.010","article-title":"Longitudinal Effect of Ambient Air Pollution and Pollen Exposure on Asthma Control: The Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Pediatric Asthma Study","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acad. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2017-211458","article-title":"Effect modifiers of lung function and daily air pollutant variability in a panel of schoolchildren","volume":"74","author":"Mentz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5246","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1805647115","article-title":"Short-term impact of PM2.5 on contemporaneous asthma medication use: Behavior and the value of pollution reductions","volume":"116","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105331","article-title":"Geospatial-temporal analysis of the impact of ozone on asthma rescue inhaler use","volume":"136","author":"Pepper","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowalska, M., Skrzypek, M., Kowalski, M., and Cyrys, J. (2020). Effect of NOx and NO2 Concentration Increase in Ambient Air to Daily Bronchitis and Asthma Exacerbation, Silesian Voivodeship in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030754"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113638","article-title":"Multi-city study on air pollution and hospital outpatient visits for asthma in China","volume":"257","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.124497","article-title":"Associations between short-term exposure to fine particulate matter and acute exacerbation of asthma in Yancheng, China","volume":"237","author":"Zuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.5357","article-title":"Association of Changes in Air Quality with Incident Asthma in Children in California, 1993\u20132014","volume":"321","author":"Garcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2019.05.015","article-title":"Association of emergency room visits for respiratory diseases with sources of ambient PM2.5","volume":"86","author":"Chi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alcala, E., Brown, P., Capitman, J.A., Gonzalez, M., and Cisneros, R. (2019). Cumulative Impact of Environmental Pollution and Population Vulnerability on Pediatric Asthma Hospitalizations: A Multilevel Analysis of CalEnviroScreen. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16152683"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.18176\/jiaci.0364","article-title":"Asthma Exacerbations in the Pediatric Emergency Department at a Tertiary Hospital: Association with Environmental Factors","volume":"29","author":"Quirce","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baek, J., Kash, B.A., Xu, X., Benden, M., Roberts, J., and Carrillo, G. (2020). Association between Ambient Air Pollution and Hospital Length of Stay among Children with Asthma in South Texas. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17113812"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201810-1823OC","article-title":"Short-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Asthma Mortality","volume":"200","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2021.106399","article-title":"Impact of the spirometric definition on comorbidities in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"184","author":"Meteran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.3111\/13696998.2012.713880","article-title":"Changes in COPD demographics and costs over 20 years","volume":"15","author":"Blanchette","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Econ."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40248-018-0149-0","article-title":"Management of severe acute exacerbations of COPD: An updated narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Crisafulli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multidiscip. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60968-9","article-title":"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"379","author":"Decramer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201204-0596PP","article-title":"Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary","volume":"187","author":"Vestbo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1513\/pats.200707-094SD","article-title":"Environmental and occupational exposures: Do they affect chronic obstructive pulmonary disease differently in women and men?","volume":"4","author":"Kennedy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2012.04.014","article-title":"Smoking cessation and environmental hygiene","volume":"96","author":"Pirozzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.06.00124605","article-title":"Global burden of COPD: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Halbert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000235","article-title":"Effects of air pollutants on upper airway disease","volume":"16","author":"Jang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1177\/1945892420932486","article-title":"Protease-Activated Receptor-2 Decreased Zonula Occlidens-1 and Claudin-1 Expression and Induced Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction in Allergic Rhinitis","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14132","article-title":"Nasal epithelial barrier dysfunction increases sensitization and mast cell degranulation in the absence of allergic inflammation","volume":"75","author":"Seys","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.07.042","article-title":"MUC1 deficiency promotes nasal epithelial barrier dysfunction in subjects with allergic rhinitis","volume":"144","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI124608","article-title":"Epithelial barrier repair and prevention of allergy","volume":"129","author":"Goleva","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12809","article-title":"Barrier function of the nasal mucosa in health and type-2 biased airway diseases","volume":"71","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1398-9995.2002.23569.x","article-title":"The relationship between alveolar epithelial proliferation and airway obstruction after ozone exposure","volume":"57","author":"Jang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2018.10.042","article-title":"Air Pollution and Noncommunicable Diseases A Review by the Forum of International Respiratory Societies\u2019 Environmental Committee, Part 1: The Damaging Effects of Air Pollution","volume":"155","author":"Schraufnagel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)60617-6","article-title":"Outdoor air pollution and asthma","volume":"383","author":"Guarnieri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201903-0675LE","article-title":"Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals Linking Air Pollution and Poor Respiratory Health?","volume":"200","author":"Sly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600419","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00419-2016","article-title":"A joint ERS\/ATS policy statement what constitutes an adverse health effect of air pollution? An analytical framework","volume":"49","author":"Thurston","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1159\/000083405","article-title":"Antioxidant responsiveness in BALB\/c mice exposed to ozone","volume":"72","author":"Jang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2013.28.2.216","article-title":"The effects of pycnogenol on antioxidant enzymes in a mouse model of ozone exposure","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2012.27.3.360","article-title":"Ozone exposure suppresses proliferative response in mice skin","volume":"27","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-7-24","article-title":"Prolonged ozone exposure in an allergic airway disease model: Adaptation of airway responsiveness and airway remodeling","volume":"7","author":"Jang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2005.20.5.759","article-title":"Additive effect of diesel exhaust particulates and ozone on airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in a mouse model of asthma","volume":"20","author":"Jang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-5-5","article-title":"The NOS isoforms play different roles in airway inflammation after ozone exposure","volume":"5","author":"Jang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2003.18.1.1","article-title":"Airway obstruction after acute ozone exposure in BALB\/c mice using barometric plethysmography","volume":"18","author":"Jang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3109\/02770903.2012.702839","article-title":"Winter season temperature drops and sulfur dioxide levels affect on exacerbation of refractory asthma in South Korea: A time-trend controlled case-crossover study using soonchunhyang asthma cohort data","volume":"49","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2017.9.3.257","article-title":"Effect of TiO2 Nanoparticles on Inflammasome-Mediated Airway Inflammation and Responsiveness","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M600234-MCP200","article-title":"Proteomic identification of macrophage migration-inhibitory factor upon exposure to TiO2 particles","volume":"6","author":"Cha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Proteom."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2016.8.3.246","article-title":"Long-Term Effects of Diesel Exhaust Particles on Airway Inflammation and Remodeling in a Mouse Model","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2019.103292","article-title":"Effects of nanoparticles on neuroinflammation in a mouse model of asthma","volume":"271","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1177\/1091581813518355","article-title":"Diesel exhaust particle-induced airway responses are augmented in obese rats","volume":"33","author":"Moon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2011.03.008","article-title":"Particle stimulation dephosphorylates glutathione S-transferase \u03c01 of epithelial cells","volume":"284","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.20319","article-title":"Ym1 and Ym2 expression in a mouse model exposed to diesel exhaust particles","volume":"23","author":"Song","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2005-0003OC","article-title":"Interleukin-25 and interleukin-13 production by alveolar macrophages in response to particles","volume":"33","author":"Kang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Global Initiative for Asthma (2020, October 06). Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. Available online: https:\/\/ginasthma.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/GINA-2020-full-report_-final-_wms.pdf."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S244","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201407-304AW","article-title":"Epithelial barrier function and immunity in asthma","volume":"11","author":"Davies","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1500","article-title":"The immunogenetics of asthma and eczema: A new focus on the epithelium","volume":"4","author":"Cookson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.04.044","article-title":"The broad spectrum of interepithelial junctions in skin and lung","volume":"130","author":"Kast","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2012.06485.x","article-title":"Perspectives on tight junction research","volume":"1257","author":"Schulzke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2007.10.025","article-title":"Epithelium dysfunction in asthma","volume":"120","author":"Holgate","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.02.035","article-title":"Claudin-18 deficiency is associated with airway epithelial barrier dysfunction and asthma","volume":"139","author":"Sweerus","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2021.01.004","article-title":"Titanium dioxide particles modulate epithelial barrier protein, Claudin 7 in asthma","volume":"132","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inoue, H., Akimoto, K., Homma, T., Tanaka, A., and Sagara, H. (2020). Airway Epithelial Dysfunction in Asthma: Relevant to Epidermal Growth Factor Receptors and Airway Epithelial Cells. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9113698"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2737","article-title":"The airway epithelium in asthma","volume":"18","author":"Lambrecht","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-1944","article-title":"Epithelial Injury and Repair in Airways Diseases","volume":"144","author":"Grainge","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S35","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201506-385MG","article-title":"New insights in oxidant biology in asthma","volume":"13","author":"Erzurum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.04.018","article-title":"Downregulation of glutathione S-transferase pi in asthma contributes to enhanced oxidative stress","volume":"128","author":"Schroer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb.27.2.4699","article-title":"Asthmatic bronchial epithelium is more susceptible to oxidant-induced apoptosis","volume":"27","author":"Bucchieri","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.08.055","article-title":"Features of the bronchial bacterial microbiome associated with atopy, asthma, and responsiveness to inhaled corticosteroid treatment","volume":"140","author":"Durack","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.05.044","article-title":"The airway microbiome in patients with severe asthma: Associations with disease features and severity","volume":"136","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201304-0775OC","article-title":"The effects of airway microbiome on corticosteroid responsiveness in asthma","volume":"188","author":"Goleva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hilty, M., Burke, C., Pedro, H., Cardenas, P., Bush, A., Bossley, C., Davies, J., Ervine, A., Poulter, L., and Pachter, L. (2010). Disordered microbial communities in asthmatic airways. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008578"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.04.005","article-title":"Phenotypic and genetic aspects of epithelial barrier function in asthmatic patients","volume":"139","author":"Loxham","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2011.01030.x","article-title":"The sentinel role of the airway epithelium in asthma pathogenesis","volume":"242","author":"Holgate","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2021.13.2.350","article-title":"The Impact of Diesel Exhaust Particles on Tight Junctional Proteins on Nose and Lung in a Mouse Model","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2019.105","article-title":"N-acetylcysteine decreases airway inflammation and responsiveness in asthma by modulating claudin 18 expression","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.22566","article-title":"Impact of ozone on claudins and tight junctions in the lungs","volume":"33","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2018.10.1.25","article-title":"Alteration in Claudin-4 Contributes to Airway Inflammation and Responsiveness in Asthma","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.08.004","article-title":"Claudin 5 in a murine model of allergic asthma: Its implication and response to steroid treatment","volume":"136","author":"Moon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.4168\/aair.2018.10.5.533","article-title":"Impact of the Endothelial Tight Junction Protein Claudin-5 on Clinical Profiles of Patients With COPD","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy Asthma Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L481","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00104.2020","article-title":"Titanium dioxide nanoparticles exaggerate respiratory syncytial virus-induced airway epithelial barrier dysfunction","volume":"319","author":"Smallcombe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-019-1226-4","article-title":"Effects of cigarette smoke on barrier function and tight junction proteins in the bronchial epithelium: Protective role of cathelicidin LL-37","volume":"20","author":"Tatsuta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10027","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46400-8","article-title":"Soluble Wood Smoke Extract Promotes Barrier Dysfunction in Alveolar Epithelial Cells through a MAPK Signaling Pathway","volume":"9","author":"Zeglinski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-018-0945-2","article-title":"Airway epithelial cells exposed to wildfire smoke extract exhibit dysregulated autophagy and barrier dysfunction consistent with COPD","volume":"19","author":"Roscioli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2009-0391OC","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction and claudin 5 regulation during acrolein-induced lung injury","volume":"44","author":"Jang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.8b00239","article-title":"Claudins, VEGF, Nrf2, Keap1, and Nonspecific Airway Hyper-Reactivity Are Increased in Mice Co-Exposed to Allergen and Acrolein","volume":"32","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2017-0200TR","article-title":"Airway Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Role of Cigarette Smoke Exposure","volume":"58","author":"Aghapour","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2016.033","article-title":"The activation of NLRP3-inflammsome by stimulation of diesel exhaust particles in lung tissues from emphysema model and RAW 264.7 cell line","volume":"32","author":"Uh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2014-0305OC","article-title":"Attenuation of Cigarette Smoke-Induced Emphysema in Mice by Apolipoprotein A-1 Overexpression","volume":"54","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2015.30.1.62","article-title":"Proteomic differences with and without ozone-exposure in a smoking-induced emphysema lung model","volume":"30","author":"Uh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/18\/9905\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:02:37Z","timestamp":1760166157000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/18\/9905"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]]},"references-count":149,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18189905"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18189905","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,20]]}}}