{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T04:35:49Z","timestamp":1773117349695,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]],"date-time":"2021-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic altered environmental factors. We studied the impact of these changes on asthma exacerbation (AE) by comparing the AE-related environmental factors between COVID-19 (2020) and pre-COVID-19 (2011\u20132019) eras. Between 2011 and 2020, 278,465 children (&lt;16 years old) visited our emergency department, and 7476 were diagnosed with AE. The number of patients showed spring and fall peaks in 2011\u20132019. Multivariate analyses showed significant positive relationships of the number of AE patients with the average temperature among all patients and 0\u20135-year-olds and with sulfur dioxide (SO2) levels in 2011\u20132019 among 0\u20135-year-olds. Although the spring peak in the number of patients was not observed in 2020 after declaration of a state of emergency, the fall peak was again observed after the state of emergency was lifted. No changes in average temperature were detected, but SO2 was significantly reduced following declaration of the state of emergency in 2020. Therefore, SO2 reduction might have contributed to the disappearance of the peak of AE. However, a fall peak was observed again in 2020, although SO2 levels continued to be low. These data suggest that person to person interaction seems to be associated with AE, presumably due to unknown viral infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182111407","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T22:21:34Z","timestamp":1635805294000},"page":"11407","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Impact of the State of Emergency during the COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020 on Asthma Exacerbations among Children in Kobe City, Japan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0787-964X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Yamaguchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0290-3137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kandai","family":"Nozu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shinya","family":"Ishiko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Atsushi","family":"Kondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7590-1522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takeshi","family":"Ninchoji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4946-1345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"China","family":"Nagano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hiroki","family":"Takeda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ai","family":"Unzaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kobe Children\u2019s Primary Emergency Medical Center, 1-4-1 Wakihamakaigandori, Chuo-ku, Kobe 651-0073, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazuto","family":"Ishibashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kobe Children\u2019s Primary Emergency Medical Center, 1-4-1 Wakihamakaigandori, Chuo-ku, Kobe 651-0073, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5685-2670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ichiro","family":"Morioka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1, Oyaguchi, Kami-cho, Itabashi-ku 173-8610, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9454-9680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroaki","family":"Nagase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazumoto","family":"Iijima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-2 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Akihito","family":"Ishida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kobe Children\u2019s Primary Emergency Medical Center, 1-4-1 Wakihamakaigandori, Chuo-ku, Kobe 651-0073, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200102013440507","article-title":"Asthma","volume":"344","author":"Busse","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2020.106020","article-title":"Prevalence of viral respiratory infections amongst asthmatics: Results of a meta-regression analysis","volume":"173","author":"Feddema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anai.2019.06.020","article-title":"Asthma and viral infections: An intricate relationship","volume":"123","author":"Mikhail","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.18176\/jiaci.0364","article-title":"Asthma exacerbations in the pediatric emergency department at a tertiary hospital: Association with environmental factors","volume":"29","author":"Quirce","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-018-0189-3","article-title":"Air pollution, urgent asthma medical visits and the modifying effect of neighborhood asthma prevalence","volume":"85","author":"Acosta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.08.037","article-title":"Short-term effects of multiple outdoor environmental factors on risk of asthma exacerbations: Age-stratified time-series analysis","volume":"144","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)33311-1","article-title":"Seminar Asthma","volume":"391","author":"Papi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201711-2166ED","article-title":"Gene-environment interactions associated with the severity of acute asthma exacerbation in children","volume":"197","author":"Kantor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s12199-010-0150-5","article-title":"The effects of weather, air pollutants, and Asian dust on hospitalization for asthma in Fukuoka","volume":"15","author":"Ueda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2008.01.013","article-title":"The relationship of short-term air pollution and weather to ED visits for asthma in Japan","volume":"27","author":"Abe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1080\/02770900802404082","article-title":"Influence of season and temperature on the relationship of elemental carbon air pollution to pediatric asthma emergency room visits","volume":"45","author":"Mohr","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141734","article-title":"Asthma and allergic rhinitis among young parents in China in relation to outdoor air pollution, climate and home environment","volume":"751","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.110955","article-title":"Effects of ambient air pollution on childhood asthma exacerbation in the Philadelphia metropolitan Region, 2011\u20132014","volume":"197","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109115","article-title":"Effects of variations in meteorological factors on daily hospital visits for asthma: A time-series study","volume":"182","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110115","article-title":"Season-stratified effects of meteorological factors on childhood asthma in Shanghai, China","volume":"191","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-020-01934-9","article-title":"Association between air pollutants and outpatient and emergency hospital visits for childhood asthma in Shenyang city of China","volume":"64","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.1097","article-title":"The novel coronavirus originating in Wuhan, China: Challenges for global health governance","volume":"323","author":"Phelan","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanz-Mu\u00f1oz, I., Tamames-G\u00f3mez, S., Castrodeza-Sanz, J., Eiros-Bouza, J.M., and de Lejarazu-Leonardo, R.O. (2021). Social distancing, lockdown and the wide use of mask: A magic solution or a double-edged sword for respiratory viruses epidemiology?. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9060595"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biteb.2021.100744","article-title":"Environmental impacts of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"15","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-021-09177-w","article-title":"Assessment of air pollution status during COVID-19 lockdown (March-May 2020) over Bangalore City in India","volume":"193","author":"Gouda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202007-765RL","article-title":"Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on pediatric emergency department use for asthma","volume":"18","author":"Simoneau","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nascimento, M.S., Baggio, D.M., Fascina, L.P., and do Prado, C. (2020). Impact of social isolation due to COVID-19 on the seasonality of pediatric respiratory diseases. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243694"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2020-319522","article-title":"COVID-19 lockdown dropped the rate of paediatric asthma admissions","volume":"105","author":"Krivec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2020.05.045","article-title":"Initial effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on pediatric asthma emergency department utilization","volume":"8","author":"Kenyon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2020.09.060","article-title":"Trends in hospitalizations for asthma during the COVID-19 outbreak in Japan","volume":"9","author":"Abe","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2016.11.003","article-title":"Japanese guidelines for childhood asthma 2017","volume":"66","author":"Arakawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e046520","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-046520","article-title":"Multivariate analysis of the impact of weather and air pollution on emergency department visits for nighttime headaches among children: Retrospective, clinical observational study","volume":"11","author":"Yamaguchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1646943","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1646943","article-title":"Air microbiome and pollution: Composition and potential effects on human health, including SARS coronavirus infection","volume":"2020","author":"Moelling","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2012.244","article-title":"Investigation of the freely available easy-to-use software \u2018EZR\u2019 for medical statistics","volume":"48","author":"Kanda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alit.2017.04.003","article-title":"\u201cSpike\u201d in acute asthma exacerbations during enterovirus D68 epidemic in Japan: A nation-wide survey","volume":"67","author":"Korematsu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergol. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110403","article-title":"Air pollution declines during COVID-19 lockdowns mitigate the global health burden","volume":"192","author":"Venter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110555","article-title":"Potential health benefits of sustained air quality improvements in New York City: A simulation based on air pollution levels during the COVID-19","volume":"193","author":"Perera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL089252","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL089252","article-title":"Air quality response in China linked to the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) lockdown","volume":"47","author":"Miyazaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m2806","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m2806","article-title":"COVID-19: Reduced asthma presentations in children","volume":"370","author":"Chavasse","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2021.01.072","article-title":"The ongoing impact of COVID-19 on asthma and pediatric emergency health-seeking behavior in the Bronx, an epicenter","volume":"43","author":"Levene","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2021.02.008","article-title":"Pediatric asthma exacerbations during the COVID-19 pandemic: Absence of the typical fall seasonal spike in Washington, DC","volume":"9","author":"Sheehan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2020.10.022","article-title":"Epidemic thunderstorm asthma: Lessons learned from the storm down-under","volume":"9","author":"Price","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113433","article-title":"High and low temperatures aggravate airway inflammation of asthma: Evidence in a mouse model","volume":"256","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.03.003","article-title":"Thunderstorm-related asthma attacks","volume":"139","author":"Molino","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-012-0604-0","article-title":"Changes in concentration of Alternaria and Cladosporium spores during summer storms","volume":"57","author":"Strzelczak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2002.120759","article-title":"Release of allergens as respirable aerosols: A link between grass pollen and asthma","volume":"109","author":"Taylor","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.18176\/jiaci.0259","article-title":"Thunderstorm asthma: A critical appraisal based on clinical practice","volume":"28","author":"Caminati","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2017-312826","article-title":"Fine particulate pollution and asthma exacerbations","volume":"103","author":"Bouazza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orellano, P., Quaranta, N., Reynoso, J., Balbi, B., and Vasquez, J. (2017). Effect of outdoor air pollution on asthma exacerbations in children and adults: Systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0174050"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2008.02.020","article-title":"Acute respiratory health effects of air pollution on children with asthma in US inner cities","volume":"121","author":"Neas","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1002653","article-title":"Personal exposures to traffic-related air pollution and acute respiratory health among Bronx schoolchildren with asthma","volume":"119","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2011.01.014","article-title":"Acute effects of air pollution on pediatric asthma exacerbation: Evidence of association and effect modification","volume":"111","author":"Samoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.1997.tb04869.x","article-title":"Mechanisms of pollution-induced airway disease: In vivo studies","volume":"52","author":"Peden","year":"1997","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuo, C.Y., Chan, C.K., Wu, C.Y., Phan, D.V., and Chan, C.L. (2019). The short-term effects of ambient air pollutants on childhood asthma hospitalization in Taiwan: A national study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16020203"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200908-1201OC","article-title":"Short-term associations between ambient air pollutants and pediatric asthma emergency department visits","volume":"182","author":"Strickland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T\u00e9treault, L.F., Doucet, M., Gamache, P., Fournier, M., Brand, A., Kosatsky, T., and Smargiassi, A. (2016). Severe and moderate asthma exacerbations in asthmatic children and exposure to ambient air pollutants. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13080771"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10945","article-title":"Environmental public health tracking of childhood asthma using California health interview survey, traffic, and outdoor air pollution data","volume":"116","author":"Wilhelm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2015.03.040","article-title":"Hourly differences in air pollution on the risk of asthma exacerbation","volume":"203","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12406","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812910106","article-title":"Parental stress increases the effect of traffic-related air pollution on childhood asthma incidence","volume":"106","author":"Shankardass","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9863","article-title":"Synergistic effects of traffic-related air pollution and exposure to violence on urban asthma etiology","volume":"115","author":"Clougherty","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370500241254","article-title":"Effects of Asian dust storm events on daily admissions for asthma in Taipei, Taiwan","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-020-00846-9","article-title":"Association between Asian dust exposure and respiratory function in children with bronchial asthma in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan","volume":"25","author":"Nakamura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20174105","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-4105","article-title":"Respiratory viruses and treatment failure in children with asthma exacerbation","volume":"142","author":"Merckx","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11479","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-47870-6","article-title":"Dispersal of allergenic pollen from Cryptomeria japonica and Chamaecyparis obtusa: Characteristic annual fluctuation patterns caused by intermittent phase synchronisations","volume":"9","author":"Ishibashi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61380-3","article-title":"Role of viral respiratory infections in asthma and asthma exacerbations","volume":"376","author":"Busse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00092410","article-title":"Association between human rhinovirus C and severity of acute asthma in children","volume":"37","author":"Bizzintino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1411.080386","article-title":"Novel human rhinoviruses and exacerbation of asthma in children","volume":"14","author":"Khetsuriani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.08.003","article-title":"Role of viral infections in the development and exacerbation of asthma in children","volume":"140","author":"Jartti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, L.D.C., Camargos, P.A.M., Brand, P.L.P., Fiaccadori, F.S., de Lima Dias E Souza, M.B., das D\u00f4res de Paula Cardoso, D., de Ara\u00fajo Castro, \u00cd., Minamisava, R., and Sucasas da Costa, P.S. (2018). Asthma exacerbations in a subtropical area and the role of respiratory viruses: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pulm. Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-018-0669-6"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero-Espinoza, J.A., Moreno-Valencia, Y., Coronel-Tellez, R.H., Castillejos-Lopez, M., Hernandez, A., Dominguez, A., Miliar-Garcia, A., Barbachano-Guerrero, A., Perez-Padilla, R., and Alejandre-Garcia, A. (2018). Virome and bacteriome characterization of children with pneumonia and asthma in Mexico City during winter seasons 2014 and 2015. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192878"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbr.2020.07.011","article-title":"The indirect impact of COVID-19 on children with asthma","volume":"56","author":"Chavasse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa032097","article-title":"Results of a home-based environmental intervention among urban children with asthma","volume":"351","author":"Morgan","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2020.1467","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in children and adolescents: A systematic review","volume":"174","author":"Castagnoli","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000699","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 and asthma, allergic rhinitis: Molecular mechanisms and host-environmental interactions","volume":"21","author":"Wakabayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.154.3.8810601","article-title":"The relationship between upper respiratory infections and hospital admissions for asthma: A time-trend analysis","volume":"154","author":"Johnston","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12854","article-title":"Increased risk of rhinovirus infection in children during the coronavirus disease-19 pandemic","volume":"15","author":"Takashita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.02.030","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic bacteria during rhinovirus infection is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and asthma exacerbations","volume":"133","author":"Kloepfer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/21\/11407\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:23:05Z","timestamp":1760167385000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/21\/11407"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph182111407"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph182111407","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]]}}}