{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T18:46:45Z","timestamp":1788547605850,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,9]],"date-time":"2021-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636416000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we study language used by suicidal users on Reddit social media platform. To do that, we firstly collect a large-scale dataset of Reddit posts and annotate it with highly trained and expert annotators under a rigorous annotation scheme. Next, we perform a multifaceted analysis of the dataset, including: (1) the analysis of user activity before and after posting a suicidal message, and (2) a pragmalinguistic study on the vocabulary used by suicidal users. In the second part of the analysis, we apply LIWC, a dictionary-based toolset widely used in psychology and linguistic research, which provides a wide range of linguistic category annotations on text. However, since raw LIWC scores are not sufficiently reliable, or informative, we propose a procedure to decrease the possibility of unreliable and misleading LIWC scores leading to misleading conclusions by analyzing not each category separately, but in pairs with other categories. The analysis of the results supported the validity of the proposed approach by revealing a number of valuable information on the vocabulary used by suicidal users and helped to pin-point false predictors. For example, we were able to specify that death-related words, typically associated with suicidal posts in the majority of the literature, become false predictors, when they co-occur with apostrophes, even in high-risk subreddits. On the other hand, the category-pair based disambiguation helped to specify that death becomes a predictor only when co-occurring with future-focused language, informal language, discrepancy, or 1st person pronouns. The promising applicability of the approach was additionally analyzed for its limitations, where we found out that although LIWC is a useful and easily applicable tool, the lack of any contextual processing makes it unsuitable for application in psychological and linguistic studies. We conclude that disadvantages of LIWC can be easily overcome by creating a number of high-performance AI-based classifiers trained for annotation of similar categories as LIWC, which we plan to pursue in future work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182211759","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,9]],"date-time":"2021-11-09T12:46:23Z","timestamp":1636461983000},"page":"11759","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Looking for Razors and Needles in a Haystack: Multifaceted Analysis of Suicidal Declarations on Social Media\u2014A Pragmalinguistic Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1910-9183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michal","family":"Ptaszynski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami 090-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6333-660X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Zasko-Zielinska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Contemporary Polish Language, Faculty of Philology, University of Wroc\u0142aw, 50-140 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3269-6378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michal","family":"Marcinczuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Computational Intelligence, Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gniewosz","family":"Leliwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5394-8127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Fortuna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"},{"name":"Institute of English and American Studies, Glottodidactics and Natural Language Processing Division, University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-308 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kamil","family":"Soliwoda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ida","family":"Dziublewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olimpia","family":"Hubert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pawel","family":"Skrzek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Piesiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Karbowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Dowgiallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"},{"name":"Institute of Clinical Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, 03-815 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9841-3652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juuso","family":"Eronen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami 090-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrycja","family":"Tempska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4466-9147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Brochocki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marek","family":"Godny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michal","family":"Wroczynski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Samurai Labs, 81-824 Sopot, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2014). 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