{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T05:47:11Z","timestamp":1793166431697,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The species sensitivity distribution (SSD) calculates the hazardous concentration at which 5% of species (HC5) will be potentially affected. For many compounds, HC5 values are unavailable impeding the derivation of SSD curves. Through a detailed bibliographic survey, we selected HC5 values (from acute toxicity tests) for freshwater aquatic species and 129 pesticides. The statistical distribution and variability of the HC5 values within the chemical classes were evaluated. Insecticides are the most toxic compounds in the aquatic communities (HC5 = 1.4 \u00d7 10\u22123 \u00b5mol L\u22121), followed by herbicides (HC5 = 3.3 \u00d7 10\u22122 \u00b5mol L\u22121) and fungicides (HC5 = 7.8 \u00b5mol L\u22121). Subsequently, the specificity of the mode of action (MoA) of pesticides on freshwater aquatic communities was investigated by calculating the ratio between the estimated baseline toxicity for aquatic communities and the HC5 experimental values gathered from the literature. Moreover, we proposed and validated a scheme to derive the ecological thresholds of toxicological concern (eco-TTC) of pesticides for which data on their effects on aquatic communities are not available. We proposed eco-TTCs for different classes of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides with a specific MoA, and three eco-TTCs for those chemicals with unavailable MoA. We consider the proposed approach and eco-TTC values useful for risk management purposes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182212078","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T21:32:07Z","timestamp":1637184727000},"page":"12078","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Use of the Species Sensitivity Distribution Approach to Derive Ecological Threshold of Toxicological Concern (eco-TTC) for Pesticides"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4390-6104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristiana","family":"Rizzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences DISAT, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6174-9176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Villa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences DISAT, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9962-4256","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro Sergio","family":"Cuzzeri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences DISAT, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0155-0579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Finizio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences DISAT, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00205145","article-title":"Variation in the sensitivity of aquatic species to toxicants","volume":"53","author":"Hoekstra","year":"1994","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Tox."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02986776","article-title":"Using comparative ecotoxicology to develop quantitative species sensitivity relationships (QSSR)","volume":"2","author":"Notenboom","year":"1995","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s002679910033","article-title":"Variation in sensitivity of aquatic species to toxicants: Practical consequences for effect assessment of chemical substances","volume":"25","author":"Vaal","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posthuma, L., Suter, G.W., and Traas, T.P. (2002). Observed regularities in SSDs for aquatic species. Species Sensitivity Distributions in Ecotoxicology, Lewis Publishers.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420032314"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/0147-6513(89)90018-3","article-title":"Ecotoxicological evaluation of soil quality criteria","volume":"18","author":"Denneman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Ecotox. Environ. Safe"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1354(91)90062-U","article-title":"Estimation of ecotoxicological protection levels from NOEC toxicity data","volume":"25","author":"Wagner","year":"1991","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018639113818","article-title":"Bootstrap estimation of community NOEC values","volume":"6","author":"Jagoe","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Posthuma, L., Suter, G.W., and Traas, T.P. (2002). Use of species sensitivity distributions in the derivation of water quality criteria for aquatic life by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Species Sensitivity Distributions in Ecotoxicology, Lewis Publishers."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posthuma, L., Suter, G.W., and Traas, T.P. (2002). European history of species sensitivity distributions. Species Sensitivity Distributions in Ecotoxicology, Lewis Publishers.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420032314"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posthuma, L., Suter, G.W., and Traas, T.P. (2002). Species-Sensitivity Distributions in Ecotoxicology, Lewis Publishers.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420032314"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"ECHA (European Chemical Agency) (2008). Guidance on Information Requirements and Chemical Safety Assessment. Chapter R.10: Characterisation of Dose [Concentration]-Response for Environment, European Chemicals Agency."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1061","article-title":"Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC)","volume":"3","author":"Wexler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Encyclopedia of Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.4373","article-title":"Species sensitivity distributions for use in environmental protection, assessment, and management of aquatic ecosystems for 12386 chemicals","volume":"8","author":"Posthuma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-445X(83)90049-8","article-title":"Comparison of the susceptibility of 22 freshwater species to 15 chemical compounds. I. (Sub)acute toxicity tests","volume":"4","author":"Slooff","year":"1983","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5620030107","article-title":"Interspecies relationships in acute toxicity of chemicals to aquatic organisms","volume":"3","author":"LeBlanc","year":"1984","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/0043-1354(85)90351-3","article-title":"Comparative toxicity of ten organic chemicals to ten common aquatic species","volume":"19","author":"Thurston","year":"1985","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"679","article-title":"Simultaneous multiple species testing: Acute toxicity of 13 chemicals to 12 diverse freshwater amphibian, fish, and invertebrate families","volume":"16","author":"Holcombe","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Tox."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2003.12.003","article-title":"Quantitative inter-specific chemical activity relationships of pesticides in the aquatic environment","volume":"67","author":"Tremolada","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.133804","article-title":"Variability in cyanobacteria sensitivity to antibiotics and implications for environmental risk assessment","volume":"695","author":"Gunnarsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/0045-6535(92)90280-5","article-title":"Classifying environmental pollutants. 1. Structure activity relationships for prediction of aquatic toxicity","volume":"25","author":"Verhaar","year":"1992","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1139\/f83-096","article-title":"Structure-toxicity relationship for the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas: Narcotic industrial chemicals","volume":"40","author":"Veith","year":"1983","journal-title":"Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10203","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b02337","article-title":"Embry, M.R. Mode of action (MOA) assignment classifications for ecotoxicology: An evaluation of approaches","volume":"51","author":"Kienzler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.4531","article-title":"Mode of Action Classifications in the EnviroTox Database: Development and Implementation of a Consensus MOA Classification","volume":"38","author":"Kienzler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.110068","article-title":"A quantitative structure-activity relationships approach to predict the toxicity of narcotic compounds to aquatic communities","volume":"190","author":"Finizio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotox. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.2875","article-title":"Ecotoxicological thresholds\u2014Practical applications in an industrial inventory","volume":"34","author":"Gutsell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2864","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.3132","article-title":"It is time to develop ecological thresholds of toxicological concern to assist environmental hazard assessment","volume":"34","author":"Belanger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2021.640183","article-title":"Ecological thresholds of toxicological concern: A review","volume":"3","author":"Barron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"EC (European Commission) (2018). Technical Guidance for Deriving Environmental Quality Standards, EU Publications. Guidance Document No. 27. Updated Version."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1021\/tx8004949","article-title":"Pest toxicology: The primary mechanisms of pesticide action","volume":"22","author":"Casida","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.12.113","article-title":"Linking sub-individual and supra-individual effects in Daphnia magna exposed to sub-lethal concentration of chlorpyrifos","volume":"235","author":"Ferrario","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.03.029","article-title":"Comparison of the behavioural effects of pharmaceuticals and pesticides on Diamesa zernyi larvae (Chironomidae)","volume":"238","author":"Villa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Krieger, R. (2010). Toxicology and Mode of Action of Pyrethroid Insecticides. Hayes\u2019 Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2736(85)90267-6","article-title":"Interactions of hexachlorocyclohexanes with lipid bilayers","volume":"812","author":"Jones","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"159","article-title":"Membrane fluidity as affected by organochlorine insecticide DDT","volume":"861","author":"Madeira","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(02)00058-6","article-title":"Cypermethrin induced plasma membrane perturbation on erythrocytes from rats: Reduction of fluidity in the hydrophobic core and in glutathione peroxidase activity","volume":"175","author":"Gabbianelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(03)00207-5","article-title":"Different effects of type I and type II pyrethroids on erythrocyte plasma membrane properties and enzymatic activity in rats","volume":"191","author":"Nasuti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9087245","article-title":"Mechanism of action of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides","volume":"87","author":"Fukuto","year":"1990","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2018.04.007","article-title":"Neonicotinoid insecticides mode of action on insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors using binding studies","volume":"151","author":"Taillebois","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095930","article-title":"Eonicotinoid insecticide toxicology: Mechanisms of selective action","volume":"45","author":"Tomizawa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.2780290304","article-title":"Mode of action, crop selectivity, and soil relations of the sulfonylurea herbicides","volume":"29","author":"Brown","year":"1990","journal-title":"Pestic. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1080\/03601230701316465","article-title":"Review of strobilurin fungicide chemicals","volume":"42","author":"Balba","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health B"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.4844","article-title":"Thiocarbamate fungicides: Reliable tools in resistance management and future outlook","volume":"74","author":"Thind","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pestic. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0061(199812)14:16<1471::AID-YEA353>3.0.CO;2-Y","article-title":"Biochemistry, cell biology and molecular biology of lipids of Saccharomyces cerevisiae","volume":"14","author":"Daum","year":"1998","journal-title":"Yeast"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-6915(99)00120-9","article-title":"Threshold of toxicological concern for chemical substances present in the diet: A practical tool for assessing the need for toxicity testing","volume":"38","author":"Kroes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.4382","article-title":"Creation of a curated aquatic toxicology database: Envirotox","volume":"38","author":"Connors","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1897\/04-133R.1","article-title":"Mode of action and aquatic exposure thresholds of no concern","volume":"24","author":"Lecloux","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1897\/IEAM_2008-067.1","article-title":"A new concept for the environmental risk assessment of poorly water soluble compounds and its application to consumer products","volume":"5","author":"Tolls","year":"2009","journal-title":"Integr. Environ. Assess."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.583","article-title":"Application of chemical toxicity distributions to ecotoxicology data requirements under REACH","volume":"30","author":"Williams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2019.03.087","article-title":"Comparative analysis of freshwater species sensitivity distributions and ecotoxicity for priority pesticides: Implications for water quality criteria","volume":"176","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecotox. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13254","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-7375-9","article-title":"Environmental risk assessment of pesticides in the River Madre de Dios, Costa Rica using PERPEST, SSD, and msPAF models","volume":"25","author":"Ruepert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-012-1171-y","article-title":"Risk assessment of herbicides and booster biocides along estuarine continuums in the Bay of Vilaine area (Brittany, France)","volume":"20","author":"Caquet","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Carvalho, R.N., Marinov, D., Loos, R., Napierska, D., Chirico, N., and Lettieri, T. (2016). Monitoring-Based Exercise: Second Review of the Priority Substances List under the Water Framework Directive, Joint Research Centre."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/22\/12078\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:31:47Z","timestamp":1760167907000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/22\/12078"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph182212078"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph182212078","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]]}}}