{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T00:40:11Z","timestamp":1791506411556,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]],"date-time":"2021-12-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Psychological and emotional forms of violence often represent a danger alarm and an important risk factor for other forms of intimate partner violence (IPV). Measuring psychological violence raises several issues of conceptualization and definition, which lead to the development of several assessment instruments; among them, the Scale of Psychological Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence (EAPA-P) showed good psychometric proprieties in a Spanish population and is used to identify which strategies are acted out to engage in psychological violence. The aim of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Italian version of EAPA-P among a group of Italian-speaking women (N = 343), thus evaluating its psychometric characteristics. Based on the English translation of the original Spanish version, an 11-item form of the EAPA-P was obtained, validity has been assessed through measures of emotion dysregulation, interpersonal guilt, conflict among partners and depression, anxiety, and stress symptomatology. Moreover, differences among groups were conducted to identify the capacity of the Italian version of EAPA-P to discriminate among women reporting experiencing psychological violence (N = 179), and who don\u2019t (N = 150). Results showed an excellent internal validity, good correlations, and a good discriminatory ability of the scale. Strengths, limitations, and practical implications of the study have been discussed according to recent literature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182312717","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]],"date-time":"2021-12-02T21:19:08Z","timestamp":1638479948000},"page":"12717","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Italian Validation of the Scale of Psychological Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence (EAPA-P)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6676-2230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Lausi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8703-8578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benedetta","family":"Barchielli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Dynamic, Clinical Psychology and Health, Sapienza University of Rome, Via degli Apuli, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3223-4421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica","family":"Burrai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0614-4457","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna Maria","family":"Giannini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0876-7033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clarissa","family":"Cricenti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260511425249","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration by Court-Ordered Men","volume":"27","author":"Hall","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.31.4.145","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence","volume":"31","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1891\/vivi.2005.20.1.99","article-title":"Assessing Physical, Sexual, and Psychological Violence Perpetrated by Intimate Male Partners toward Women: A Spanish Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"20","author":"Martinez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"WHO (2021). Violence against Women: Prevalence Estimates, 2018, WHO. World Report on Violence and Health."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elghossain, T., Bott, S., Akik, C., and Obermeyer, C.M. (2019). Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in the Arab world: A systematic review. BMC Int. Health Hum. Rights, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12914-019-0215-5"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP4998","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260518796523","article-title":"Prevalence of Emotional and Physical Intimate Partner Violence among Married Women in Pakistan","volume":"36","author":"Iqbal","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2017-209701","article-title":"Intimate partner violence against young women: Prevalence and associated factors in Europe","volume":"72","author":"Barrio","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-020-01457-5","article-title":"Is the \u2018Nordic Paradox\u2019 an illusion? Measuring intimate partner violence against women in Europe","volume":"65","author":"Permanyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn-Fern\u00e1ndez, M., Gracia, E., and Lila, M. (2019). Psychological intimate partner violence against women in the European Union: A cross-national invariance study. BMC Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7998-0"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lausi, G., Pizzo, A., Cricenti, C., Baldi, M., Desiderio, R., Giannini, A.M., and Mari, E. (2021). Intimate partner violence during the covid-19 pandemic: A review of the phenomenon from victims\u2019 and help professionals\u2019 perspectives. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18126204"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)69523-8","article-title":"Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women\u2019s health and domestic violence","volume":"368","author":"Jansen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barchielli, B., Baldi, M., Paoli, E., Roma, P., Ferracuti, S., Napoli, C., Giannini, A.M., and Lausi, G. (2021). When \u201cStay at Home\u201d Can Be Dangerous: Data on Domestic Violence in Italy during COVID-19 Lockdown. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18178948"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maldonado, A.I., Farzan-Kashani, J., Sun, S., Pitts, S.C., Lorenzo, J.M., Barry, R.A., and Murphy, C.M. (2020). Psychometric Properties and Factor Analysis of a Short Form of the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse. J. Interpers. Violence.","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260520957668"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.57.5.579","article-title":"Psychological aggression predicts physical aggression in early marriage","volume":"57","author":"Murphy","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.5.1.83","article-title":"The Predictive Utility of Psychological Aggression for Intimate Partner Violence","volume":"5","author":"Salis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Partn. Abus."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027106","article-title":"Is it the exception or the rule? Daily co-occurrence of physical, sexual, and psychological partner violence in a 90-day study of substance-using, community women","volume":"2","author":"Sullivan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801216671220","article-title":"The Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence on Health: A Further Disaggregation of Psychological Violence\u2014Evidence from Spain","volume":"23","year":"2017","journal-title":"Violence Women"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260517723744","article-title":"Controlling Behaviors and Intimate Partner Violence among Women in Spain: An Examination of Individual, Partner, and Relationship Risk Factors for Physical and Psychological Abuse","volume":"36","author":"Aizpurua","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.118976","article-title":"The Role of Emotional Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence and Health among Women in Yokohama, Japan","volume":"99","author":"Yoshihama","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260512468236","article-title":"Physical and Emotional Abuse in Romantic Relationships","volume":"28","author":"Leisring","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00978514","article-title":"The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships","volume":"5","author":"Follingstad","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801215624792","article-title":"Depression in Women Who Have Left Violent Relationships","volume":"22","author":"Estefan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Violence Women"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.74.5.920","article-title":"The effects of forgiveness therapy on depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress for women after spousal emotional abuse","volume":"74","author":"Reed","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2007.09.003","article-title":"Shame, guilt, symptoms of depression, and reported history of psychological maltreatment","volume":"31","author":"Webb","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2011.04.001","article-title":"Exploring Negative Emotion in Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence: Shame, Guilt, and PTSD","volume":"42","author":"Beck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1556-6676.1994.tb00950.x","article-title":"Women Surviving an Abusive Relationship: Grief and the Process of Change","volume":"72","author":"Russell","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Couns. Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1521\/jscp.23.6.836.54802","article-title":"Concordance on Negative Emotion in Close Relationships: Transmission of Emotion or Assortative Mating?","volume":"23","author":"Segrin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Soc. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2018.04.012","article-title":"Marital Conflict, Cognitive Emotion Regulation, Maladaptive Schema and Sexual Satisfaction in spouse abused and non-abused women in Iran: A comparative study","volume":"35","author":"Ghahari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801208319283","article-title":"Mental Health Consequences of Intimate Partner Abuse","volume":"14","author":"Mechanic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Violence Women"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2004.08.010","article-title":"Psychological intimate partner violence: The major predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder in abused women","volume":"29","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2016.11.015","article-title":"Clinically speaking, psychological abuse matters","volume":"73","author":"Maia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00020","article-title":"Psychological Intimate Partner Violence during Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes: Threat of Violence versus Other Verbal and Emotional Abuse","volume":"29","author":"Gentry","year":"2014","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-019-1118-1","article-title":"The psychological subtype of intimate partner violence and its effect on mental health: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Dokkedahl","year":"2019","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60522-X","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and women\u2019s physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women\u2019s health and domestic violence: An observational study","volume":"371","author":"Ellsberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heise, L., Pallitto, C., Garc\u00eda-Moreno, C., and Clark, C.J. (2019). Measuring psychological abuse by intimate partners: Constructing a cross-cultural indicator for the Sustainable Development Goals. SSM-Popul. Health, 9.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2019.100377"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2007.01593.x","article-title":"The impact of psychological abuse by an intimate partner on the mental health of pregnant women","volume":"115","author":"Tiwari","year":"2008","journal-title":"BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.16.1.65","article-title":"Psychological Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Battered Women: Examining the Roles of Shame and Guilt","volume":"16","author":"Street","year":"2001","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.10.4.391","article-title":"Examining Mock Jurors\u2019 Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Factors","volume":"10","author":"Pica","year":"2019","journal-title":"Partn. Abus."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61079-3","article-title":"Emotional abuse: A neglected dimension of partner violence","volume":"376","author":"Jewkes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2006.07.004","article-title":"Rethinking current approaches to psychological abuse: Conceptual and methodological issues","volume":"12","author":"Follingstad","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"European Institute for Gender Equality (2017). Glossary of Definitions of Rape, Femicide and Intimate Partner Violence, European Institute for Gender Equality."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.4.3.159","article-title":"The Development of a Measure of Psychological Maltreatment of Women by Their Male Partners","volume":"4","author":"Tolman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.14.1.3","article-title":"Psychological Abuse: A Variable Deserving Critical Attention in Domestic Violence","volume":"14","year":"1999","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.3.4.406","article-title":"The Impact and Consequences of Partner Abuse on Partners","volume":"3","author":"Lawrence","year":"2012","journal-title":"Partn. Abus."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2020-214987","article-title":"Patterns of intimate partner violence against women in Europe: Prevalence and associated risk factors","volume":"75","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.14.1.69","article-title":"Effects of Men\u2019s Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse on Low-Income Women","volume":"14","author":"Marshall","year":"1999","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cupach, W.R., and Spitzberg, B.H. (1994). Physical and Psychological Abuse. The Dark Side of Interpersonal Communication, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315807010"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Kishor, S., and Johnson, K. (2004). Profiling Domestic Violence: A Multi-Country Study, ORC Macro."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7776","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260519835878","article-title":"Controlling Behavior and Lifetime Physical, Sexual, and Emotional Violence in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"36","author":"McClintock","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00988769","article-title":"The measure of wife abuse: Steps toward the development of a comprehensive assessment technique","volume":"8","author":"Rodenburg","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1177\/019251396017003001","article-title":"The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2)","volume":"17","author":"Straus","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Fam. Issues"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.11.3.199","article-title":"The Dominance Scale: Preliminary Psychometric Properties","volume":"11","author":"Hamby","year":"1996","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1177\/088626092007003001","article-title":"The Abusive Behavior Inventory","volume":"7","author":"Shepard","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022834215681","article-title":"A multidimensional definition of partner abuse: Development and preliminary validation of the composite abuse scale","volume":"14","author":"Hegarty","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1891\/vivi.2005.20.5.529","article-title":"The composite abuse scale: Further development and assessment of reliability and validity of a multidimensional partner abuse measure in clinical settings","volume":"20","author":"Hegarty","year":"2005","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.67.1.43","article-title":"Reducing violence using community-based advocacy for women with abusive partners","volume":"67","author":"Sullivan","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1300\/J013v21n02_08","article-title":"A partial validation of two short-form partner abuse scales","volume":"21","author":"Attala","year":"1994","journal-title":"Women Health"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Straus, M., Hamby, S.L., and Warren, W.L. (2003). The Conflict Tactics Scale Handbook, Western Psychological Services."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.88.1.45","article-title":"An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program","volume":"88","author":"Foshee","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(18)30235-6","article-title":"The Safe Dates Project: Theoretical Basis, Evaluation Design, and Selected Baseline Findings","volume":"12","author":"Foshee","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00350.x","article-title":"Beyond the measurement trap: A reconstructed conceptualization and measurement of woman battering","volume":"23","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"273","article-title":"Measuring battering: Development of the Women\u2019s Experience with Battering (WEB) Scale","volume":"1","author":"Smith","year":"1995","journal-title":"Womens Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1177\/107780120200801004","article-title":"A Population-Based Study of the Prevalence and Distinctiveness of Battering, Physical Assault, and Sexual Assault in Intimate Relationships","volume":"8","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Violence Women"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.20.4.407","article-title":"Validation of the Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale: An Examination of Construct Validity","volume":"20","author":"Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1177\/088626000015009001","article-title":"Defining psychological abuse of husbands toward wives: Contexts, behaviors, and typologies","volume":"15","author":"Follingstad","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murphy, C., Hoover, S.A., and Taft, C. (1999). The Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse: Factor Structure and Subscale Validity, Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy.","DOI":"10.1037\/t21184-000"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.14.1.39","article-title":"Measuring Emotional Abuse in Dating Relationships as a Multifactorial Construct","volume":"14","author":"Murphy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.14.1.105","article-title":"The impact of different forms of psychological abuse on battered women","volume":"14","author":"Sackett","year":"1999","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.14.1.25","article-title":"The Validation of the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory","volume":"14","author":"Tolman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"214","article-title":"Desarrollo y validaci\u00f3n de la escala de abuso psicol\u00f3gico aplicado en la pareja (EAPA-P)","volume":"28","author":"Almendros","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"916","article-title":"Taxonomy and hierarchy of psychological abuse strategies in intimate partner relation-ships. [Taxonom\u00eda y jerarquizaci\u00f3n de las estrategias de abuso psicol\u00f3gico en la violencia de pareja]","volume":"30","author":"Almendros","year":"2014","journal-title":"An. Psicol."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"127","article-title":"Ansiedad y depresi\u00f3n. Validaci\u00f3n de la escala HAD en pacientes oncol\u00f3gicos","volume":"12","author":"Terol","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rev. Psicol. Salud"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"207","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n de las propiedades psicom\u00e9tricas de la versi\u00f3n espa\u00f1ola de cinco cuestionarios para la evaluaci\u00f3n del trastorno de estr\u00e9s postraum\u00e1tico","volume":"28","author":"Bobes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Actas Esp. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Lausi, G., Quaglieri, A., Burrai, J., Mari, E., and Giannini, A.M. (2020). Development of the DERS-20 among the Italian population: A study for a short form of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Mediterr. J. Clin. Psychol., 8."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1521\/pdps.2018.46.1.23","article-title":"Preliminary Data about the Validation of a Self-Report for the Assessment of Interpersonal Guilt: The Interpersonal Guilt Rating Scales\u201315s (IGRS-15s)","volume":"46","author":"Gazzillo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychodyn. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(94)00075-U","article-title":"The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories","volume":"33","author":"Lovibond","year":"1995","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Barbaranelli, C., and D\u2019Olimpio, F. (2006). Analisi Dei Dati con SPSS, Led Milano."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Muth\u00e9n, B., and Muth\u00e9n, L. (2017). Mplus, Chapman and Hall\/CRC."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Barbaranelli, C., and Ingoglia, S. (2013). I Modelli di Equazioni Strutturali: Temi e Prospettive, Led Milano."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.88.3.588","article-title":"Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures","volume":"88","author":"Bentler","year":"1980","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.3.4.424","article-title":"Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124192021002005","article-title":"Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit","volume":"21","author":"Browne","year":"1992","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"23","article-title":"Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures","volume":"8","author":"Moosbrugger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Methods Psychol. Res. Online"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Magnusson, K. (2021, November 16). Interpreting Cohen\u2019s d effect size: An interactive visualization (Version 2.5.1). R Psychologist, Available online: https:\/\/rpsychologist.com\/cohend\/."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2016.03.040","article-title":"Intimate partner violence against women and the Nordic paradox","volume":"157","author":"Gracia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1080\/17405629.2010.549011","article-title":"Reciprocal involvement in adolescent dating aggression: An Italian\u2013Spanish study","volume":"8","author":"Menesini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015561129899","article-title":"Translation and validation of the Amsterdam preoperative anxiety and information scale (APAIS) for use in Japan","volume":"11","author":"Nishimori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behling, O., and Law, K.S. (2000). Translating Questionnaires and Other Research Instruments: Problems and Solutions, Sage.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412986373"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2017.1382638","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Psychological Violence against Male Victims in Intimate Relationships in Canada","volume":"27","author":"Dim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Black, M., Basile, K., Breiding, M., Smith, S., Walters, M., Merrick, M., Chen, J., and Stevens, M. (2011). National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Summary Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"1","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization\u2013national intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States, 2011","volume":"63","author":"Breiding","year":"2014","journal-title":"MMWR. Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.3.3.286","article-title":"Prevalence of Partner Abuse: Rates of Emotional Abuse and Control","volume":"3","author":"Carney","year":"2012","journal-title":"Partn. Abus."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-010-9311-y","article-title":"Is Psychological Abuse Reciprocal in Intimate Relationships? Data from a National Sample of American Adults","volume":"25","author":"Follingstad","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.2005.00217.x","article-title":"Female Violence against Intimate Partners: An Introduction","volume":"29","author":"Frieze","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015066","article-title":"The gender debate about intimate partner violence: Solutions and dead ends","volume":"1","author":"Hamby","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-009-9628-2","article-title":"Controversies Involving Gender and Intimate Partner Violence in the United States","volume":"62","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-005-4194-8","article-title":"Understanding Gender and Intimate Partner Abuse","volume":"52","author":"McHugh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-013-0274-3","article-title":"Men\u2019s Experience of Psychological Abuse: Conceptualization and Measurement Issues","volume":"69","author":"McHugh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801212475339","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Health among Italian Adolescents","volume":"19","author":"Romito","year":"2013","journal-title":"Violence Women"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2011.07.001","article-title":"Understanding the nature and etiology of intimate partner violence and implications for practice and policy","volume":"31","author":"Dixon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2011.586573","article-title":"Gender differences in reporting psychological abuse in a national sample","volume":"20","author":"Rogers","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026296","article-title":"Gender differences in intimate partner violence outcomes","volume":"2","author":"Caldwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2011.02.008","article-title":"Gender differences in self-reports of intimate partner violence: A review","volume":"16","author":"Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2014.12.014","article-title":"Conjugal violence: A comparison of violence against men by women and women by men","volume":"31","author":"Thureau","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Forensic Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(02)00514-7","article-title":"Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women","volume":"23","author":"Coker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/23\/12717\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:38:52Z","timestamp":1760168332000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/23\/12717"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph182312717"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph182312717","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]}}}