{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]],"date-time":"2026-09-13T02:07:41Z","timestamp":1789265261525,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,31]],"date-time":"2021-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individuals with the combination of psychopathy and severe conduct disorder often get in a lot of trouble from their early childhood, and can cause great suffering and problems for other people and their immediate environment. Their antisocial behaviour has a tendency to develop into a chronic pattern early in life, and the treatment prognosis in adulthood is poor. A large proportion of serious violent crimes in society can be attributed to this group of perpetrators. Until recently, it has been unclear whether traits of this type can be prevented or changed, so that these individuals and their surroundings can benefit from targeted treatments at an early stage. To reduce serious crime in a society, it is very important to develop effective measures for this particular group. A lack of empathy, indifference to others, and a lack of concern about their own performance appear to be key early signs in children and adolescents with persistent behavioural problems and more serious norm violations who continue into a criminal career upon reaching adulthood. These characteristics have been termed callous\u2212unemotional (CU) traits, and they are considered to be a precursor to psychopathic traits in adulthood. In recent years, several studies have evaluated the degree to which treatments that have been proved effective for children and adolescents with severe behavioural problems also show effectiveness for children and adolescents with CU traits. Interventions specifically tailored to children with CU traits have also been developed with the aim of directly changing the ongoing development of this precursor to psychopathy. In this paper, we will address the extent to which current evidence-based treatment methods developed for children and adolescents with behavioural difficulties are equally effective when a child has CU traits. We will also take a closer look at the effects of interventions designed to change this trait. There will be a discussion regarding what seems relevant for a change in the trait itself, as well as a change in their antisocial behaviour.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010409","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,3]],"date-time":"2022-01-03T20:49:38Z","timestamp":1641242978000},"page":"409","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Possible Interventions for Preventing the Development of Psychopathic Traits among Children and Adolescents?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Gunnar","family":"Bj\u00f8rnebekk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1140, 0318 Oslo, Norway"},{"name":"The Norwegian Center for Child Behavioral Development, Essendrops gt. 3, 0368 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8799-5527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dagfinn","family":"M\u00f8rkrid Th\u00f8gersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Norwegian Center for Child Behavioral Development, Essendrops gt. 3, 0368 Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"31","article-title":"The epidemiology of antisocial behavior in childhood and adolescence","volume":"17","author":"Offord","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dev. Treat. Child. Aggress."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033076","article-title":"Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review","volume":"140","author":"Frick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.07.037","article-title":"Callous-unemotional behaviors in early childhood: The development of empathy and prosociality gone awry","volume":"20","author":"Waller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeLisi, M. (2016). Why Psychopathy as Unified Theory of Crime?. Psychopathy as Unified Theory of Crime, Palgrave Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1057\/978-1-137-46907-6"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014696110850","article-title":"Adolescent development and the measurement of juvenile psychopathy","volume":"26","author":"Seagrave","year":"2002","journal-title":"Law Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Ogden, T. (2015). Sosial Kompetanse og Problematferd Blant Barn og Unge, Gyldendal Akademisk."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2016.1146990","article-title":"Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Adolescents with Disruptive Behavior","volume":"45","author":"McCart","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2012.04.033","article-title":"Outcomes, moderators, and mediators of empathic-emotion recognition training for complex conduct problems in childhood","volume":"199","author":"Dadds","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.100.4.674","article-title":"Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy","volume":"100","author":"Moffitt","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0309-4","article-title":"Male antisocial behaviour in adolescence and beyond","volume":"2","author":"Moffitt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579401002097","article-title":"Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females","volume":"13","author":"Moffitt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"APA (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12102","article-title":"Research Review: Evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour","volume":"54","author":"Fairchild","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027061","article-title":"Childhood risk, offending trajectories, and psychopathy at age 48 years in the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development","volume":"18","author":"Piquero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Public Policy Law"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2015.06.003","article-title":"Bringing psychopathy into developmental and life-course criminology theories and research","volume":"43","author":"Fox","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2015.04.006","article-title":"Can the causal mechanisms underlying chronic, serious, and violent offending trajectories be elucidated using the psychopathy construct?","volume":"43","author":"Corrado","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01862.x","article-title":"Research Review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior","volume":"49","author":"Frick","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2009.02199.x","article-title":"The role of callous and unemotional traits in the diagnosis of conduct disorder","volume":"51","author":"Rowe","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-005-5728-9","article-title":"Callous\u2013Unemotional Traits in Predicting the Severity and Stability of Conduct Problems and Delinquency","volume":"33","author":"Frick","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200303000-00018","article-title":"Callous\/Unemotional Traits and Social-Cognitive Processes in Adjudicated Youths","volume":"42","author":"Pardini","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457940800028X","article-title":"Callous-unemotional traits and the emotional processing of distress cues in detained boys: Testing the moderating role of aggression, exposure to community violence, and histories of abuse","volume":"20","author":"Kimonis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1080\/15374410701441575","article-title":"Interpersonal and Affective Features of Psychopathy in Children and Adolescents: Advancing a Developmental Perspective Introduction to Special Section","volume":"36","author":"Pardini","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.116.1.155","article-title":"Longitudinal evidence that psychopathy scores in early adolescence predict adult psychopathy","volume":"116","author":"Lynam","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191106287354","article-title":"Callous-unemotional traits in a communitysample of adolescents","volume":"13","author":"Essau","year":"2006","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00991640","article-title":"Empathy: Conceptualization, measurement, and relation to prosocial behavior","volume":"14","author":"Eisenberg","year":"1990","journal-title":"Motiv. Emot."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2010.01500.x","article-title":"Young Children Selectively Avoid Helping People with Harmful Intentions","volume":"81","author":"Vaish","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1080\/01650250143000373","article-title":"Development of lying to conceal a transgression: Children\u2019s control of expressive behaviour during verbal deception","volume":"26","author":"Talwar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9507.2005.00323.x","article-title":"Nice and Nasty Theory of Mind in Preschool Children: Nature and Nurture","volume":"14","author":"Ronald","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soc. Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Patterson, G.R. (1982). A social learning approach, Volume 3. Coercive Family Process, Castalia Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2614","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-020-01783-5","article-title":"The Interplay between Positive and Negative Parenting and Children\u2019s Negative Affect on Callous-Unemotional Traits","volume":"29","author":"Dargis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Child Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2013.03.001","article-title":"What are the associations between parenting, callous\u2013unemotional traits, and antisocial behavior in youth? A systematic review of evidence","volume":"33","author":"Waller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1080\/15374410701444215","article-title":"The development of callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior in children: Are there shared and\/or unique predictors?","volume":"36","author":"Pardini","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2011.581624","article-title":"Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices?","volume":"40","author":"Hawes","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Cicchetti, D., and Cohen, D.J. (2006). The development and ecology of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Developmental Psychopathology: Risk, Disorder, and Adaptation, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02435.x","article-title":"Do callous-unemotionaltraits moderate the relative importance of parental coercion versus warmth in child conduct problems? An observational study","volume":"52","author":"Pasalich","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-011-0172-6","article-title":"Parental monitoring and youth behavior problems: Moderation by callous-unemotional traits over time","volume":"20","author":"Pakalniskiene","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02397.x","article-title":"The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless tem-perament and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: A 14-year longitudinal investigation","volume":"52","author":"Barker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2012.02550.x","article-title":"Do harsh and positive parenting predict parent reports of deceitful-callous behavior in early childhood?","volume":"53","author":"Waller","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2010.02300.x","article-title":"Contextual risk factors as predictors of disruptive behavior disorder trajectories in girls: The moderating effect of callous-unemotional features","volume":"52","author":"Kroneman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2016.06.002","article-title":"Which dimension of parenting predicts the change of callous unemotional traits in children with disruptive behavior disorder?","volume":"69","author":"Muratori","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000155","article-title":"Sensitivity to parenting in adolescents with callous\/unemotional traits: Observational and experimental findings","volume":"125","author":"Humayun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2914","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-014-0095-1","article-title":"Perceived family conflict moderates the relations of adolescent narcissism and cu traits with aggression","volume":"24","author":"Kauten","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Child Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weisz, J.R., Ng, M.Y., and Lau, N. (2015). Psychological interventions: Overview and critical issues for the field. Rutter\u2019s Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, John Wiley & Sons Limited.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118381953.ch36"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.73.4.737","article-title":"The Treatment of Conduct Problems in Children with Callous-Unemotional Traits","volume":"73","author":"Hawes","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/15374410701444298","article-title":"Stability and Malleability of Callous-Unemotional Traits during Treatment for Childhood Conduct Problems","volume":"36","author":"Hawes","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dishion, T.J., and Stormshak, E.A. (2007). Intervening in Children\u2019s Lives: An Ecological, Family-Centered Approach to Mental Health Care, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/11485-000"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579412001101","article-title":"Dimensions of callousness in early childhood: Links to problem behavior and family intervention effectiveness","volume":"25","author":"Hyde","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S347","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2018.1479966","article-title":"Parent-Child Interaction Therapy Adapted for Preschoolers with Callous-Unemotional Traits: An Open Trial Pilot Study","volume":"48","author":"Kimonis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2021.05.003","article-title":"Treatment of Early Childhood Callous-Unemotional Traits: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go from Here?","volume":"60","author":"Neuman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-011-9512-8","article-title":"Effects of a parenting intervention on features of psychopathy in children","volume":"39","author":"McDonald","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2012.01.019","article-title":"Promoting Self-Regulation and Cooperation in Pre-Kindergarten Children with Conduct Problems: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"51","author":"Somech","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2016.1178123","article-title":"Three Randomized Effectiveness Trials\u2014One Question: Can Callous-Unemotional Traits in Children Be Altered?","volume":"47","author":"Zachrisson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1177\/1049731513492860","article-title":"A Randomized Effectiveness Trial of Brief Parent Training: Six-Month Follow-Up","volume":"23","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Soc. Work. Pr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2012.11.006","article-title":"A randomized trial of group parent training: Reducing child conduct problems in real-world settings","volume":"51","author":"Hukkelberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-014-0031-6","article-title":"A randomized effectiveness trial of individual child social skills training: Six-month follow-up","volume":"8","author":"Ogden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854814543272","article-title":"Comparison of multisystemic therapy and functional family therapy effectiveness: A multiyear statewide propensity score matching analysis of juvenile offenders","volume":"41","author":"Baglivio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crim. Justice Behav."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1017\/S1360641798001786","article-title":"Multisystemic therapy: An overview of clinical procedures, outcomes, and policy implications","volume":"4","author":"Henggeler","year":"1999","journal-title":"Child Psychol. Psychiatry Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Henggeler, S.W., Schoenwald, S.K., Borduin, C.M., Rowland, M.D., and Cunningham, P.B. (2009). Multisystemic Therapy for Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.evalprogplan.2014.08.004","article-title":"Evidence-based programs registry: Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development","volume":"48","author":"Mihalic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eval. Program Plan."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2014.06.006","article-title":"The effectiveness of Multisystemic Therapy (MST): A meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Asscher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2011.09.017","article-title":"A Randomized Controlled Trial of Multisystemic Therapy and a Statutory Therapeutic Intervention for Young Offenders","volume":"50","author":"Butler","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-013-9749-5","article-title":"Psychopathy as Predictor and Moderator of Multisystemic Therapy Outcomes among Adolescents Treated for Antisocial Behavior","volume":"41","author":"Manders","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, J.F., Waldron, H.B., Robbins, M.S., and Neeb, A.A. (2013). Functional Family Therapy for Adolescent Behavior Problems, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/14139-000"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1111\/famp.12256","article-title":"The Effectiveness of Functional Family Therapy for Adolescent Behavioral and Substance Misuse Problems: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"56","author":"Hartnett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fam. Process."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, J.L., Hawes, D.J., and Essau, C.A. (2021). Functional Behaviour in Family Adolescents Therapy for Antisocial. Family-Based Intervention for Child and Adolescent Mental Health: A Core Competencies Approach, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108682053"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.2041","article-title":"Callous-unemotional traits and response to functional family therapy in adolescent offenders","volume":"31","author":"White","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behav. Sci. Law"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"3976","article-title":"Callous-Unemotional Traits Do Not Predict Functional Family Therapy Outcomes for Adolescents with Behavior Problems","volume":"11","author":"Scavenius","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1037\/pst0000093","article-title":"Therapeutic alliance and treatment outcome in the outpatient treatment of urban adolescents: The role of callous\u2013unemotional traits","volume":"54","author":"Mattos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychotherapy"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579409990071","article-title":"Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective","volume":"21","author":"Frick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1177\/1534650119849491","article-title":"The Efficacy of a Compassion-Focused Therapy\u2013Based Intervention in Reducing Psychopathic Traits and Disruptive Behavior: A Clinical Case Study with a Juvenile Detainee","volume":"18","author":"Rijo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Case Stud."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"397","article-title":"Clinical change in psychopathic traits after the PSYCHOPATHY.COMP program: Preliminary findings of a controlled trial with male detained youth","volume":"17","author":"Rijo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12494","article-title":"Practitioner Review: Involving young people with callous unemotional traits in treatment\u2014Does it work? A systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/1\/409\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:56:29Z","timestamp":1760169389000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/1\/409"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,31]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19010409"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19010409","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,31]]}}}