{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T10:10:35Z","timestamp":1788084635420,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Ministero della Salute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Ricerca Corrente 2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Ricerca Corrente 2016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministero dell'Istruzione dell'Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca","award":["PRIN 2017 No.2017HRCPE4"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2017 No.2017HRCPE4"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The ability of infants to track transitional probabilities (Statistical Learning\u2014SL) and to extract and generalize high-order rules (Rule Learning\u2014RL) from sequences of items have been proposed as being pivotal for the acquisition of language and reading skills. Although there is ample evidence of specific associations between SL and RL abilities and, respectively, vocabulary and grammar skills, research exploring SL and RL as early markers of language and learning (dis)abilities is still scarce. Here we investigated the efficiency of visual SL and RL skills in typically developing (TD) seven-month-old infants and in seven-month-old infants at high risk (HR) for language learning impairment. Infants were tested in two visual-habituation tasks aimed to measure their ability to extract transitional probabilities (SL task) or high-order, repetition-based rules (RL task) from sequences of visual shapes. Post-habituation looking time preferences revealed that both TD and HR infants succeeded in learning the statistical structure (SL task), while only TD infants, but not HR infants, were able to learn and generalize the high-order rule (RL task). These findings suggest that SL and RL may contribute differently to the emergence of language learning impairment and support the hypothesis that a mechanism linked to the extraction of grammar structures may contribute to the disorder.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19031877","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T23:37:48Z","timestamp":1644363468000},"page":"1877","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Visual Implicit Learning Abilities in Infants at Familial Risk for Language and Learning Impairments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Roberta","family":"Bettoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6482-6627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Cantiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute Eugenio Medea, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7959-0354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Riva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute Eugenio Medea, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Massimo","family":"Molteni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Psychopathology Unit, Scientific Institute Eugenio Medea, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viola","family":"Macchi Cassia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hermann","family":"Bulf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12721","article-title":"Phase 2 of CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study of Problems with Language Development: Terminology","volume":"58","author":"Bishop","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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