{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T03:01:56Z","timestamp":1776999716257,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>According to the latest estimates, there are around 24.6 million cocaine users worldwide, and it is estimated that around a quarter of the population worldwide has used cocaine at some point in their lifetime. It follows that such widespread consumption represents a major risk for public health. Long-term use of cocaine, in addition to being related to many cerebral and cardiovascular diseases, is increasingly associated with a higher incidence of psychomotor symptoms and neurodegenerative disorders. In recent years, numerous studies have shown an increased risk of antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms (EPSs) in patients with psychotic spectrum disorders comorbid with psychostimulant misuse, particularly of cocaine. In the present paper, we describe the case of a young patient on his first entry into a psychiatric setting with previous cocaine misuse who rapidly presented psychomotor symptoms and was poorly responsive to symptomatic therapy consisting of benzodiazepines and anticholinergics, in relation to the introduction of various antipsychotics (first, second, and third generation). Furthermore, we propose neurobiological mechanisms underlying the hypothesized increased vulnerability to psychomotor symptoms in chronic cocaine abusers. Specifically, we supposed that the chronic administration of cocaine produces important neurobiological changes, causing a complex dysregulation of various neurotransmitter systems, mainly affecting subcortical structures and the dopaminergic and glutamatergic pathways. We believe that a better understanding of these neurochemical and neurobiological processes could have useful clinical and therapeutic implications by providing important indications to increase the risk\u2013benefit ratio in pharmacological choice in patients with psychotic spectrum disorders comorbid with a substance use disorder.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19031897","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T23:37:48Z","timestamp":1644363468000},"page":"1897","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Psychomotor Symptoms in Chronic Cocaine Users: An Interpretative Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Davide","family":"Cenci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, Major University Hospital of Charity, Psychiatry Institute, Eastern Piedmont University, Via Solaroli 17, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7457-6008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel Glauco","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Division of Psychiatry, University of Insubria, Viale Luigi Borri 57, 21100 Varese, Italy"},{"name":"Pisa-School of Experimental and Clinical Psychiatry, Via di Pratale 2, 56100 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0624-9988","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilla","family":"Callegari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, Division of Psychiatry, University of Insubria, Viale Luigi Borri 57, 21100 Varese, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6324-0576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Icro","family":"Maremmani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VP Dole Dual Disorder Unit, G. Delisio Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Via di Pratale 2, 56100 Pisa, Italy"},{"name":"Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences, Via di Sant\u2019Alessandro 8, 00131 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-018-0632-3","article-title":"Dopamine: Functions, Signaling, and Association with Neurological Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Klein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-00532-4","article-title":"Stress and the dopaminergic reward system","volume":"52","author":"Baik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. 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