{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T14:42:05Z","timestamp":1788446525951,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,19]],"date-time":"2022-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645228800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Purpose: Adolescents\u2019 excessive social media use has characteristics similar to other addictive behaviours. This study aims to explore whether the same risk factors are associated with excessive social media use as with excessive gaming and gambling among Finnish adolescents. Methods: Multinomial logistic regression analyses were carried out using the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs data, collected from Finnish adolescents aged 15\u201316 in 2019 (n = 4595). Results: Excessive use of social media was more common among girls (reported by 46% of respondents) than boys of the same age (28%), whereas boys reported both excessive gaming (23%) and gambling (6%) more often than girls (4% and 1%, respectively). All differences between genders were statistically significant (p &lt; 0.0001). Daily smoking was associated with a high risk of excessive gambling (AOR = 3.23) and low risk of excessive gaming (AOR = 0.27) but had no significant effect on excessive social media use. Cannabis use in the past 12 months was positively associated only with excessive gambling (AOR = 2.39), while past 12 months alcohol consumption increased the risk for excessive social media use (AOR = 1.25). Conclusions: Adolescent girls are at greater risk of excessive social media use than boys, while boys are at greater risk of excessive gaming and gambling. The associations with known risk factors are somewhat different for excessive use of social media as compared to excessive gambling and gaming and should be acknowledged when developing preventive measures for adolescents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19042406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]],"date-time":"2022-02-21T08:18:05Z","timestamp":1645431485000},"page":"2406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Risk Factors for Excessive Social Media Use Differ from Those of Gambling and Gaming in Finnish Youth"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0492-9610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sari","family":"Castr\u00e9n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Health and Well-Being Promotion Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 30, 00271 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"Social Sciences Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology Turku, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Terhi","family":"Mustonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sosped Foundation, 00510 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1371-0031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krista","family":"Hylkil\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit of Nursing Science and Health Management, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1292-4852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niko","family":"M\u00e4nnikk\u00f6","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit of Nursing Science and Health Management, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland"},{"name":"School of Health and Social Care, Oulu University of Applied Sciences, 90101 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8295-8172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"K\u00e4\u00e4ri\u00e4inen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit of Nursing Science and Health Management, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland"},{"name":"Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital, 90014 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7909-8562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kirsimarja","family":"Raitasalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health and Well-Being Promotion Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 30, 00271 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Social Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, 70210 Kuopio, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-016-0105-z","article-title":"Adolescent gambling and problem gambling: Prevalence, current issues, and concerns","volume":"3","author":"Delfabbro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"ESPAD Group (2021, May 04). ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs. EMCDDA Joint Publications. Publications Office of the European Union. Available online: http:\/\/espad.org\/sites\/espad.org\/files\/2020.3878_EN_04.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botella-Guijarro, \u00c1., Lloret-Irles, D., Segura-Heras, J.V., Cabrera-Perona, V., and Moriano, J.A. (2020). A Longitudinal Analysis of Gambling Predictors among Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17249266"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1111\/sjop.12533","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10) and problematic gaming behavior among Finnish vocational school students","volume":"60","author":"Ruotsalainen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4053","DOI":"10.2174\/13816128113199990616","article-title":"Social Network Site Addiction\u2014An Overview","volume":"20","author":"Andreassen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-019-00279-7","article-title":"A systematic review of the co-occurrence of gaming disorder and other potentially addictive behaviors","volume":"6","author":"Burleigh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01364.x","article-title":"Adolescents\u2019 interpretations of parental control: Differentiated by domain and types of control","volume":"80","author":"Kakihara","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2020.02.014","article-title":"Adolescents\u2019 Intense and Problematic Social Media Use and Their Well-Being in 29 Countries","volume":"66","author":"Boer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2015.07.014","article-title":"Social media definition and social media governance challenge: An Introduction to the special Issue","volume":"39","author":"Obar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winstone, L., Mars, B., Haworth, C.M.A., and Kidger, J. (2021). Social media use and social connectedness among adolescents in the United Kingdom: A qualitative exploration of displacement and stimulation. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11802-9"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8","DOI":"10.1017\/jrr.2017.13","article-title":"How Social Are Social Media? A Review of Online Social Behaviour and Connectedness","volume":"8","author":"Ryan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Relatsh. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/02673843.2019.1590851","article-title":"A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological stress in adolescents","volume":"25","author":"Keles","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adolesc. Youth"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"e8627","article-title":"Social Media Use and It Connection to Mental Health: A Systematic Review","volume":"12","author":"Karim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.6.2017.075","article-title":"Investigating the differential effects of social networking site addiction and Internet gaming disorder on psychological health","volume":"6","author":"Pontes","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Behav. Addict."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Booker, C.L., Kelly, Y.J., and Sacker, A. (2018). Gender differences in the association between age trends of social media interaction and well-being among 10\u201315 year olds in the UJK. BMC Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-5220-4"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-015-0056-9","article-title":"Online Social Network Site Addiction: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"2","author":"Andreassen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e1nyai, F., Zsila, \u00c1., Kir\u00e1ly, O., Maraz, A., Elekes, Z., Griffiths, M., Andreassen, C.S., and Demetrovics, Z. (2017). Problematic Social Media Use: Results from a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Adolescent Sample. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169839"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106364","article-title":"Investigating the links between fear of missing out, social media addiction, and emotional symptoms in adolescence: The role of stress associated with neglect and negative reactions on social media","volume":"106","author":"Fabris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2020.106395","article-title":"Do selfie-expectancies and social appearance anxiety predict adolescents\u2019 problematic social media use?","volume":"110","author":"Boursier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aboujaoude, E., and Starcevic, V. (2015). An overview of problematic gaming. Mental Health in the Digital Age: Grave Dangers, Great Promise, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780199380183.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, May 05). International Classification of Diseases for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (11th Revision). Available online: https\/\/icd.who.int\/browse11\/l-m7en."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2020.1768430","article-title":"Gaming-gambling convergence: Evaluating evidence for the \u2018gateway\u2019 hypothesis","volume":"20","author":"Delfabbro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-016-9627-5","article-title":"Prevalence of Adolescent Problem Gambling: A Systematic Review of Recent Research","volume":"33","author":"Calado","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2020.1724333","article-title":"Investigating problematic social media and game use in a nationally representative sample of adolescents and younger adults","volume":"40","author":"Reer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holstein, B.E., Pedersen, T.P., Bendtsen, P., Madsen, K.R., Meilstrup, C.R., Nielsen, L., and Rasmussen, M. (2014). Perceived problems with computer gaming and internet use among adolescents: Measurement tool for non-clinical survey studies. BMC Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-361"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1159\/000517042","article-title":"Polysubstance Use Is Positively Associated with Gaming Disorder Symptom Severity: A Latent Class Analytical Study","volume":"28","author":"Demetrovics","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Addict. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-016-0683-y","article-title":"Adolescent gambling-oriented attitudes mediate the relationship between perceived parental knowledge and adolescent gambling: Implications for prevention","volume":"17","author":"Canale","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1080\/13229400.2017.1367713","article-title":"Structural relations between sources of parental knowledge, feelings of being overly controlled and risk behaviors in early adolescence","volume":"26","author":"Kapetanovic","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14275","article-title":"Prevalence of youth gambling and potential influence of substance use and other risk factors throughout 33 European countries: First results from the 2015 ESPAD study","volume":"113","author":"Molinaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1308.005","article-title":"Risk Taking in Adolescence: What Changes, and Why?","volume":"1021","author":"Steinberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.5817\/CP2019-1-4","article-title":"Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention","volume":"13","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol. J. Psychosoc. Res. Cyberspace"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-016-0930-9","article-title":"Participation in organized leisure-time activities and risk behaviors in Czech adolescents","volume":"62","author":"Badura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hipwell, A.E., Murray, J., Xiong, S., Stepp, S., and Keenan, K.E. (2016). Effects of adolescent childbearing on maternal depression and problem behaviors: A prospective, population-based study using risk-set propensity scores. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0155641"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Raitasalo, K., and H\u00e4rk\u00f6nen, J. (2021, June 06). Nuorten P\u00e4ihteiden K\u00e4ytt\u00f6 Ja Rahapelaaminen: ESPAD-Tutkimus 2019. Terveyden ja Hyvinvoinnin laitos. Available online: http:\/\/urn.fi\/URN:NBN:fi-fe2019110737026."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"SAS Institute (2011). Inc. SAS\/STAT\u00ae 9.3 User\u2019s Guide, SAS Institute, Inc."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Paschke, K., Austermann, M.I., Simon-Kutscher, K., and Thomasius, R. (2021). Adolescent social media usage before and during the Covid-19 pandemic. Open Sci. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2016.03.006","article-title":"The relationship between addictive use of social media, narcissism, and self-esteem: Findings from a large national survey","volume":"64","author":"Andreassen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2019.09.002","article-title":"Exploring predictors of online gambling in a nationally representative sample of Spanish adolescents","volume":"102","author":"Escario","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Lenhart, A. (2021, June 05). Teen, Social Media and Technology Overview 2015. Pew Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2015\/04\/09\/teens-social-media-technology-2015\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1093\/hcre.12111","article-title":"The relationship between media multitasking and attention problems in adolescents: Results of two longitudinal studies","volume":"44","author":"Baumgartner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peris, M., De La Barrera, U., Schoeps, K., and Montoya-Castilla, I. (2020). Psychological Risk Factors that Predict Social Networking and Internet Addiction in Adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124598"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aparicio-Martinez, P., Perea-Moreno, A.J., Martinez-Jimenez, M.P., Redel-Mac\u00edas, M.D., Pagliari, C., and Vaquero-Abellan, M. (2019). Social Media, Thin-Ideal, Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating Attitudes: An Exploratory Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16214177"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2020.01.014","article-title":"Social media use and risky behaviors in adolescents: A meta-analysis","volume":"79","author":"Vannucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2013.02.014","article-title":"Motivational, emotional and behavioural correlates of fear of missing out","volume":"29","author":"Przybylski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.106720","article-title":"The relationship between burden caused by coronavirus (COVID-19), addictive social media use, sense of control and anxiety","volume":"119","author":"Brailovskaia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4469","article-title":"Social media and emergency preparedness in response to novel coronavirus","volume":"323","author":"Merchant","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1111\/add.13825","article-title":"Substance and behavioral addictions may share a similar underlying process of dysregulation","volume":"112","author":"Sussman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.3109\/10826080902858375","article-title":"Family Structure and Adolescent Drug Use: An Exploration of Single-Parent Families","volume":"44","author":"Hemovich","year":"2009","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"119","article-title":"Which health-related problems are associated with problematic video-gaming or social media use in adolescents? A large-scale cross-sectional study","volume":"14","author":"Kleiboer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"NIDA (2021, December 17). Sex and Gender Differences in Substance Use. 13 April 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.drugabuse.gov\/publications\/research-reports\/substance-use-in-women\/sex-gender-differences-in-substance."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2020.06.010","article-title":"Gambling harm is everybody\u2019s business: A public health approach and call to action","volume":"184","author":"Johnstone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.7.2018.86","article-title":"Time to call for a global public health approach in prevention of the onset and progression of problematic gaming","volume":"7","author":"Chung","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Behav. Addict."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1037\/adb0000160","article-title":"The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorder: A Large- scale cross-sectional study","volume":"30","author":"Andreassen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Hibell, B., Guttormsson, U., Ahlstr\u00f6m, S., Balakireva, O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., and Kraus, L. (2012). 2011 ESPAD Report: Substance Use among Students in 36 European Countries, Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs, Stockholm, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Council of Europe, Cooperation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs (Pompidou Group), The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/4\/2406\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:23:02Z","timestamp":1760134982000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/4\/2406"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,19]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19042406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19042406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,19]]}}}