{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T22:31:09Z","timestamp":1777501869239,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,19]],"date-time":"2022-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000589","name":"Chief Scientist Office","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["COV\/STG\/20\/07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COV\/STG\/20\/07"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000589","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Staff working in homelessness services often find the work rewarding yet challenging, and the sector experiences high levels of staff burnout and staff turnover. During the COVID-19 pandemic, staff working in these services faced particularly stressful working conditions. This study explored the experiences of stress and wellbeing among those working in frontline homelessness service roles during the early stages of the pandemic in Scotland. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 participants, 11 of whom completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Qualitative data were analysed using Framework Analysis in NVivo, informed by the Revised Transactional Model of occupational stress and coping. MBI data were analysed using descriptive statistics. The COVID-19 pandemic positively and negatively impacted participants\u2019 lives and roles. Organisational culture acted as a magnifying glass for pre-pandemic practices: for some, the pandemic brought teams and staff closer together, creating a better working environment. For others, it led to fragmentation and frustration. Participants discussed coping strategies and recommendations for the future to protect staff wellbeing. Quantitative data suggested that participants were not experiencing burnout, although some were at heightened risk. Future research should explore the longer-term impact of the pandemic on homelessness service staff outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19063659","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,20]],"date-time":"2022-03-20T21:30:14Z","timestamp":1647811814000},"page":"3659","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Stress and Wellbeing during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed-Methods Exploration of Frontline Homelessness Services Staff Experiences in Scotland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6846-2661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannah","family":"Carver","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Salvation Army Centre for Addiction Services and Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9746-7269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tracey","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Salvation Army Centre for Addiction Services and Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Danilo","family":"Falzon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Salvation Army Centre for Addiction Services and Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"McCulloch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HJ, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0409-3254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tessa","family":"Parkes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Salvation Army Centre for Addiction Services and Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1080\/02673037.2017.1344957","article-title":"Homelessness in the UK: Who is most at risk?","volume":"33","author":"Bramley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hous. Stud."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2366","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098014548138","article-title":"Pathways into homelessness: Understanding how both individual and structural factors contribute to and sustain homelessness in Canada","volume":"52","author":"Piat","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098012452329","article-title":"Pathways into multiple exclusion homelessness in seven UK cities","volume":"50","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e257","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.12730","article-title":"Working conditions, mental health and coping of staff in social work with refugees and homeless individuals: A scoping review","volume":"27","author":"Wirth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Soc. Care Community"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/09687630701377587","article-title":"Transitions through homelessness, substance use, and the effect of material marginalization and psychological trauma","volume":"15","author":"McNaughton","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drugs Educ. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"National Records of Scotland (2022, January 25). Alcohol-Specific Deaths 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.nrscotland.gov.uk\/files\/\/statistics\/alcohol-deaths\/2020\/alcohol-specific-deaths-20-report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"National Records of Scotland (2022, January 25). Drug-Related Deaths in Scotland in 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.nrscotland.gov.uk\/statistics-and-data\/statistics\/statistics-by-theme\/vital-events\/deaths\/drug-related-deaths-in-scotland\/2020."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"National Records of Scotland (2022, January 25). Homeless Deaths 2019, Available online: https:\/\/www.nrscotland.gov.uk\/files\/statistics\/homeless-deaths\/19\/homeless-deaths-19-report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"87","article-title":"Working with people experiencing homelessness in Europe: A mixed-method approach to analyse homeless services","volume":"14","author":"Gaboardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Homelessness"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.13502","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-synthesis of qualitative studies that investigate the emotional experiences of staff working in homeless settings","volume":"30","author":"Peters","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Soc. Care Community"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1758-0854.2009.01008.x","article-title":"Psychological well-being: Evidence regarding its causes and consequences","volume":"1","author":"Huppert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1186\/s12955-020-01423-y","article-title":"Well-being is more than happiness and life satisfaction: A multidimensional analysis of 21 countries","volume":"18","author":"Ruggeri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Qual. Life Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magwood, O., Leki, V.Y., Kpade, V., Saad, A., Alkhateeb, Q., Gebremeskel, A., Rehman, A., Hannigan, T., Pinto, N., and Sun, A.H. (2019). Common trust and personal safety issues: A systematic review on the acceptability of health and social interventions for persons with lived experience of homelessness. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0226306"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2733","DOI":"10.1007\/s11266-014-9545-z","article-title":"Is there a subjective well-being premium in voluntary sector employment?","volume":"26","author":"McKay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Volunt. Int. J. Volunt. Nonprofit Organ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/1359432X.2010.485352","article-title":"Key questions regarding work engagement","volume":"20","author":"Bakker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Work Organ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00016","article-title":"The Florence Nightingale effect: Organizational identification explains the peculiar link between others\u2019 suffering and workplace functioning in the homelessness sector","volume":"7","author":"Ferris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1108\/14608791211254207","article-title":"The (dis)stressing effects of working in (dis)stressed homelessness organisations","volume":"15","author":"Scanlon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hous. Care Support"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5055\/jem.2016.0268","article-title":"Hurricane Sandy\u2019s impact on the predisaster homeless and homeless shelter services in New Jersey","volume":"14","author":"Settembrino","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.397","article-title":"Job burnout","volume":"52","author":"Maslach","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"CD013779","article-title":"Interventions to support the resilience and mental health of frontline health and social care professionals during and after a disease outbreak, epidemic or pandemic: A mixed methods systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Pollock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1002\/ajcp.12470","article-title":"Factors associated with providers\u2019 work engagement and burnout in homeless services: A cross-national study","volume":"67","author":"Lenzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6n, D. (1992). From technical rationality to reflection-in-action. The Reflective Practitioner, Routledge. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szabla, D., Pasmore, W., Barnes, M., and Gipson, A. (2017). Learning and change in the work of Donald Sch\u00f6n: Reflection on theory and theory on reflection. The Palgrave Handbook of Organizational Change Thinkers, Palgrave Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-52878-6"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.026","article-title":"Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and insomnia among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"88","author":"Pappa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113216","article-title":"Psychological resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown","volume":"291","author":"Killgore","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"100057","article-title":"Stressful life events and social capital during the early phase of COVID-19 in the U.S","volume":"2","author":"Herring","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Humanit. Open"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, C., Hobson, C.W., and Shelton, K.H. (2021). \u2018Grounding a PIE in the sky\u2019: Laying empirical foundations for a psychologically informed environment (PIE) to enhance well-being and practice in a homeless organisation. Health Soc. Care Community.","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.13435"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pixley, C.L., Henry, F.A., DeYoung, S.E., and Settembrino, M.R. (2021). The role of homelessness community based organizations during COVID-19. J. Community Psychol.","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.22609"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.2555","article-title":"A brief acceptance and commitment intervention for work-related stress and burnout amongst frontline homelessness staff: A single case experimental design series","volume":"28","author":"Reeve","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1080\/00048670902721079","article-title":"Vicarious trauma, secondary traumatic stress or simply burnout? Effect of trauma therapy on mental health professionals","volume":"43","author":"Devilly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1177\/0306624X06298708","article-title":"Burnout among corrections-based drug treatment staff","volume":"51","author":"Garner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Offender. Ther. Comp. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kerman, N., Ecker, J., Gaetz, S., Tiderington, E., and Kidd, S.A. (2021). Mental health and wellness of service providers working with people experiencing homelessness in Canada: A national survey from the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Can. J. Psychiatry.","DOI":"10.1177\/07067437211018782"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, January 13). WHO Announces COVID-19 Outbreak a Pandemic. Available online: https:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/en\/health-topics\/health-emergencies\/coronavirus-covid-19\/news\/news\/2020\/3\/who-announces-covid-19-outbreak-a-pandemic."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"The Scottish Parliament (2022, February 25). Timeline of Coronavirus (COVID-19) in Scotland. Available online: https:\/\/spice-spotlight.scot\/2022\/02\/25\/timeline-of-coronavirus-covid-19-in-scotland\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-021-01079-8","article-title":"A global panel database of pandemic policies (Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker)","volume":"5","author":"Hale","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00368504211019854","DOI":"10.1177\/00368504211019854","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic: A review of the global lockdown and its far-reaching effects","volume":"104","author":"Onyeaka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"49","article-title":"Homelessness and public health: Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"15","author":"Doran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Homelessness"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e054528","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-054528","article-title":"Anxiety and depression among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic umbrella review of the global evidence","volume":"11","author":"Fernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703838","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703838","article-title":"Mental health in COVID-19 pandemic: A meta-review of prevalence meta-analyses","volume":"12","author":"Coelho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Levesque, J., Sehn, C., Babando, J., Ecker, J., and Embleton, L. (2022, January 13). Understanding the needs of workers in the homelessness and housing sector: Final report. Available online: https:\/\/www.homelesshub.ca\/sites\/default\/files\/attachments\/HubSolutions-Understanding-Needs-Oct2021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1177\/1542305018780655","article-title":"Factors predicting burnout among chaplains: Compassion satisfaction, organizational factors, and the mediators of mindful self-care and secondary traumatic stress","volume":"72","author":"Hotchkiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pastoral. Care Counsel."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"13","article-title":"The Revised Transactional Model (RTM) of Occupational Stress and Coping: An improved process approach","volume":"3","author":"Goh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, Springer."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1097\/JPN.0000000000000436","article-title":"The experiences of parents in the neonatal intensive care unit: An integrative review of qualitative studies within the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping","volume":"33","author":"Loewenstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Perinat. Neonatal. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., and Dillon, L. (2021, December 01). Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/498321\/Quality-in-qualitative-evaulation_tcm6-38739.pdf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.78.10.1336","article-title":"Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population","volume":"78","author":"Johnson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"44","article-title":"Theories of social solidarity in the situations of (natural) disasters","volume":"6","author":"Alfirdaus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Politika"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2018.1556143","article-title":"Social capital and disasters: How does social capital shape post-disaster conditions in the Philippines?","volume":"29","author":"Jovita","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/21620555.2020.1814139","article-title":"Social capital and COVID-19: A multidimensional and multilevel approach","volume":"53","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1007\/s11135-014-0092-x","article-title":"Linking emergency management networks to disaster resilience: Bonding and bridging strategy in hierarchical or horizontal collaboration networks","volume":"49","author":"Jung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Qual. Quant."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Maslach, C., and Jackson, S. (2022, January 13). MBI: Human Services Survey. Mind Garden. Available online: https:\/\/www.mindgarden.com\/314-mbi-human-services-survey."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., and Leiter, M.P. (2021, November 12). Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. Available online: www.mindgarden.com."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Maslach, C., and Jackson, S. (2021, November 12). Scoring and Interpretation Key\u2014MBI-HSS. Available online: www.mindgarden.com."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Mind Garden (2021, November 12). The problem with cut-offs for the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Available online: https:\/\/www.mindgarden.com\/documents\/MBI-Cutoff-Caveat.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1177\/1749975507078189","article-title":"From the narrative of the blitz to the rhetoric of vulnerability","volume":"1","author":"Furedi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cult. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-007-9103-1","article-title":"Are shelter workers burned out? An examination of stress, social support, and coping","volume":"22","author":"Baker","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Wallace, A. (2016). Investigating Risk and Protective Factors for Burnout and Engagement in Support Workers Working in the Homelessness Sector: An Irish Context. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Trinity College Dublin]. Available online: https:\/\/www.tcd.ie\/swsp\/assets\/pdf\/Dissertations%20ASS\/Wallace,Anna.pdf."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Young, S.D. (2007). Psychotherapists Working with Homeless Clients: The Experience of Stress, Burnout Symptoms, and Coping. [Ph.D. Thesis, Antioch University Seattle]. Available online: https:\/\/etd.ohiolink.edu\/apexprod\/rws_etd\/send_file\/send?accession=antioch1274468610&disposition=inline."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/6\/3659\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:39:37Z","timestamp":1760135977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/6\/3659"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,19]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19063659"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19063659","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,19]]}}}