{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T14:45:33Z","timestamp":1790779533758,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,6]],"date-time":"2022-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649203200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004091","name":"Kumamoto University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FY2021 Kumamoto University Academic English Paper Editing Support"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FY2021 Kumamoto University Academic English Paper Editing Support"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004091","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aftereffects of the severe 2016 Kumamoto earthquake were complicated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to identify mental health problems and related factors among survivors five years after the earthquake and clarify its long-term effects. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2020 among 19,212 survivors affected by the earthquake who moved from temporary to permanent housing. We analysed 8966 respondents (5135 women, 3831 men; mean age 62.25 \u00b1 17.29 years). Logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine associations between mental health problems and socioeconomic factors. Prevalence rates of psychological distress, insomnia, and probable post-traumatic stress disorder were 11.9%, 35.2%, and 4.1%, respectively. Female gender (OR = 1.33, 95% CI = 1.13\u20131.57; OR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.08\u20131.34; OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.41\u20132.32), public housing (OR = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.63\u20132.83; OR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.26\u20131.88; OR = 2.41, 95% CI = 1.62\u20133.58), loneliness (OR = 9.08, 95% CI = 7.71\u201310.70; OR = 5.55, 95% CI = 4.90\u20136.30; OR = 3.52, 95% CI = 2.77\u20134.49), COVID-19-induced activity reduction (OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.19\u20131.66; OR = 1.86, 95% CI = 1.68\u20132.07; OR = 1.80, 95% CI = 1.40\u20132.31), and COVID-19-induced income reduction (OR = 1.33, 95% CI = 1.12\u20131.57; OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.28\u20131.59; OR = 1.92, 95% CI = 1.51\u20132.43) were significantly associated with mental health problems. These results suggest that gender, current housing, loneliness, and COVID-19 affected the survivors\u2019 mental health during recovery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19074403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,6]],"date-time":"2022-04-06T16:21:30Z","timestamp":1649262090000},"page":"4403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Depression, Insomnia, and Probable Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among Survivors of the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake and Related Factors during the Recovery Period Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4308-0202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayako","family":"Ide-Okochi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto City 862-0976, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomonori","family":"Samiso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health and Welfare Policy Division, Health and Welfare Bureau, Kumamoto City 860-0808, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yumie","family":"Kanamori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto City 862-0976, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9768-9702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mu","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto City 862-0976, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mika","family":"Sakaguchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto City 862-0976, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazumi","family":"Fujimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Community Health Systems Nursing, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon City 791-0295, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Japan Meteorological Agency (2022, March 21). The 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake -Portal-. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, January 31). Chapter Overview of the Kumamoto Earthquake\u2014Kumamoto City Website. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-017-0682-7","article-title":"2016 Kumamoto earthquake sequence and its impact on earthquake science and hazard assessment","volume":"69","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2022, January 31). Mainichi Shimbun. Strongest Aftershock since April Jolts Kumamoto. Available online: https:\/\/mainichi.jp\/english\/articles\/20160613\/p2a\/00m\/0na\/001000c."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Fire and Disaster Management Agency, Japan Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (2022, January 31). Earthquake with Seismic Origin in the Kumamoto District, Kumamoto Prefecture, (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2022, January 25). Passing on Memories of the Kumamoto Earthquake for the Future to Learn from Its Gallery-Style Field Museum. Available online: https:\/\/kumamotojishin-museum.com\/about\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000124","article-title":"Mental health problems in a community after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011: A systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Ando","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12772","article-title":"Longitudinal characteristics of resilience among adolescents: A high school student cohort study to assess the psychological impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake","volume":"72","author":"Okuyama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwaa041","article-title":"Postdisaster changes in social capital and mental health: A natural experiment from the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake","volume":"189","author":"Sato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Prolonged grief disorder among bereaved survivors after the 2011 Van Earthquake in Turkey","volume":"12","year":"2021","journal-title":"Death Stud."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.22365\/jpsych.2018.291.25","article-title":"Sleep problems six-months after continuous earthquake activity in a Greek island","volume":"29","author":"Lazaratou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatriki"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"WHO (2022, January 25). Director-General\u2019s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19\u201411 March 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/director-general\/speeches\/detail\/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2008017","article-title":"Mental health and the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"383","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022257","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression symptoms, and psychosocial treatment needs in Colombians internally displaced by armed conflict: A mixed-method evaluation","volume":"3","author":"Richards","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orui, M., Saeki, S., Harada, S., and Hayashi, M. (2021). Practical report of disaster-related mental health interventions following the Great East Japan Earthquake during the COVID-19 pandemic: Potential for suicide prevention. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph181910424"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rocha, I.C.N., Dos Santos Costa, A.C., Islam, Z., Jain, S., Goyal, S., Mohanan, P., Essar, M.Y., and Ahmad, S. (2021). Typhoons during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines: Impact of a double crises on mental health. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep., 1\u20134. online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2021.140"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795661","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.795661","article-title":"Case series: Managing severe mental illness in disaster situation: The Croatian experience after 2020 earthquake","volume":"12","author":"Medved","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zsz162","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsz162","article-title":"Bidirectional associations between insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depressive symptoms among adolescent earthquake survivors: A longitudinal multiwave cohort study","volume":"42","author":"Geng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Statistical Survey Division, Kumamoto Prefecture (2022, January 25). Kumamoto Prefecture Population Estimation Report (Annual Report). (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6691350","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6691350","article-title":"Cognition and Implementation of disaster preparedness among Japanese dialysis facilities","volume":"2021","author":"Sugisawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291702006074","article-title":"Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress","volume":"32","author":"Kessler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.257","article-title":"The performance of the Japanese version of the K6 and K10 in the World Mental Health Survey Japan","volume":"17","author":"Furukawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomata, Y., Watanabe, T., Tanji, F., Zhang, S., Sugawara, Y., and Tsuji, I. (2018). The impact of psychological distress on incident functional disability in elderly Japanese: The Ohsaki Cohort 2006 study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112502"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"National Institute of Health and Nutrition Health Japan21 (2nd Round) (2022, January 25). Analysis and Evaluation Project. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jos.2017.10.011","article-title":"Association between sleep disturbance and new-onset subjective knee pain in Great East Japan Earthquake survivors: A prospective cohort study in the Miyagi prefecture","volume":"23","author":"Hagiwara","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20130138","article-title":"Mental health distress and related factors among prefectural public servants seven months after the great East Japan Earthquake","volume":"24","author":"Suzuki","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2017.07.020","article-title":"Association between housing type and \u03b3-GTP increase after the Great East Japan Earthquake","volume":"189","author":"Murakami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12073","article-title":"Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Athens Insomnia Scale","volume":"67","author":"Okajima","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3999(00)00095-7","article-title":"Athens Insomnia Scale: Validation of an instrument based on ICD-10 criteria","volume":"48","author":"Soldatos","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1539\/sangyoeisei.B14011","article-title":"Factors associated with depressive symptoms in blue-collar and white-collar male workers","volume":"57","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sangyo Eiseigaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.9.4.445","article-title":"The validation of a self-report measure of post-traumatic stress disorder: The posttraumatic diagnostic scale","volume":"9","author":"Foa","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364119","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2017.1364119","article-title":"A new short version of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale: Validity among Japanese adults with and without PTSD","volume":"8","author":"Itoh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2016.09.006","article-title":"The Japanese version of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale: Validity in participants with and without traumatic experiences","volume":"25","author":"Itoh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-020-0831-9","article-title":"Improved metabolomic data-based prediction of depressive symptoms using nonlinear machine learning with feature selection","volume":"10","author":"Takahashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Tomita, H., and Study on Mental Health of Disaster Victims (2022, January 25). Survey on the Health Status of the Victims of the Great East Japan Earthquake in Miyagi Prefecture. Comprehensive Research Project on Health, Safety and Crisis Management Measures. Subsidy for Research Project to Promote Health and Labor Administration (H25-Kenki-Specification-002(Reconstruction). Report of the Research Project. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2022, January 25). Kumamoto Prefectural Government, Department of Health and Welfare, Child and Disability Welfare Bureau, Support Division for Persons with Disabilities. Results of the 1st Mental and Physical Health Survey, (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Hayashi, H. (2022, March 22). Survey on the Health Status of Victims of the Great East Japan Earthquake. Special Research. Health, Labor and Welfare Science Research Grant, Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare Special Research Project (H23-Tokubetsu-Shitei-002). Report of the Research Project. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.237.83","article-title":"Periodontal disease is associated with insomnia among victims of the Great East Japan Earthquake: A panel study initiated three months after the disaster","volume":"237","author":"Tsuchiya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2016.01.025","article-title":"The effects of relocation and level of affectedness on mood and anxiety symptom treatments after the 2011 Christchurch earthquake","volume":"152","author":"Hogg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kumamoto City (2022, March 22). Precinct-Based Health Town Development. Available online: https:\/\/www.city.kumamoto.jp.e.fm.hp.transer.com\/hpkiji\/pub\/detail.aspx?c_id=5&type=top&id=31602."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Japan Meteorological Agency (2022, March 22). Local Government Seismic Intensity Meter Waveforms. (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tempesta, D., Curcio, G., De Gennaro, L., and Ferrara, M. (2013). Long-term impact of earthquakes on sleep quality. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0055936"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.230.151","article-title":"Premenstrual symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder in Japanese high school students 9 months after the great East-Japan earthquake","volume":"230","author":"Takeda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.12.009","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among adult survivors 8 years after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China","volume":"210","author":"Guo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.048","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence","volume":"89","author":"Vindegaard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"455","article-title":"Does type of residential housing matter for depressive symptoms in the aftermath of a disaster? Insights from the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami","volume":"187","author":"Sasaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotozaki, Y., Tanno, K., Sakata, K., Takusari, E., Otsuka, K., Tomita, H., Sasaki, R., Takanashi, N., Mikami, T., and Hozawa, A. (2021). Association between the social isolation and depressive symptoms after the great East Japan earthquake: Findings from the baseline survey of the TMM CommCohort study. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10896-5"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sugawara, Y., Tomata, Y., Sekiguchi, T., Yabe, Y., Hagiwara, Y., and Tsuji, I. (2020). Social trust predicts sleep disorder at 6 years after the Great East Japan earthquake: Data from a prospective cohort study. BMC Psychol., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-020-00436-y"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.39.3.472","article-title":"The revised UCLA loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence","volume":"39","author":"Russell","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bris, P., and Bendito, F. (2019). Impact of Japanese post-disaster Temporary Housing Areas\u2019 (THAs) design on mental and social health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16234757"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30460-8","article-title":"The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence","volume":"395","author":"Brooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/7\/4403\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:49:16Z","timestamp":1760136556000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/7\/4403"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,6]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19074403"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19074403","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,6]]}}}