{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T13:20:49Z","timestamp":1770816049571,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]],"date-time":"2022-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649635200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this study is to explore differences in pacing strategies between successful and less successful male elite cross-country skiers during a 15 km interval-start race involving different techniques. The final rank, split times and final times were extracted individually for the top 100 finishers in the 15 km individual time trial races from the Norwegian national season opener races over two years. The same course was used in all the competitions. The athletes were divided into four groups according to final rank: Q1: 1st\u201325th; Q2: 26th\u201350th; Q3: 51st\u201375th; Q4: 76th\u2013100th. The relative change in speed was used for the time spent on lap 1, to an average for laps 2 and 3. Significant correlation between placement and speed reduction after the first lap was found in three out of four races. In Race 2 (skating), both Q1 and Q2 had lower speed decreases between laps than Q4 did. In year 2, both races (classical and skating) had lower speed reduction between laps for the first quartile compared to that of the last. Overall, this study shows that lower-level cross-country skiers started out relatively faster in the first lap and achieved a greater reduction in speed in the subsequent laps when compared to their faster opponents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19084589","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T00:23:11Z","timestamp":1649722991000},"page":"4589","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Characteristics of Pacing Strategies among Elite Cross-Country Skiers According to Final Rank"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Vidar","family":"Vikestad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Faculty of Teacher Education and Arts, Nord University, 7600 Levanger, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3073-4182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terje","family":"Dalen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Faculty of Teacher Education and Arts, Nord University, 7600 Levanger, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jshs.2018.09.005","article-title":"Pacing and predictors of performance during cross-country skiing races: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Pellegrini","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0163-0","article-title":"Pacing and Decision Making in Sport and Exercise: The Roles of Perception and Action in the Regulation of Exercise Intensity","volume":"44","author":"Smits","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.8.4.435","article-title":"An Analysis of Pacing Profiles of World-Class Racewalkers","volume":"8","author":"Hanley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200838030-00004","article-title":"Describing and understanding pacing strategies during athletic competition","volume":"38","author":"Abbiss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.8.3.279","article-title":"Influence of Different Performance Levels on Pacing Strategy During the Women\u2019s World Championship Marathon Race","volume":"8","author":"Renfree","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2014.07.003","article-title":"Competitor presence reduces internal attentional focus and improves 16.1 km cycling time trial performance","volume":"18","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2015.05.021","article-title":"Head-to-head running race simulation alters pacing strategy, performance, and mood state","volume":"149","author":"Tomazini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol Behav."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2016.02.023","article-title":"The behavior of an opponent alters pacing decisions in 4-km cycling time trials","volume":"158","author":"Konings","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol Behav."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199910000-00018","article-title":"Physiological effects of constant versus variable power during endurance cycling","volume":"31","author":"Liedl","year":"1999","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199705000-00015","article-title":"Effects of steady-state versus stochastic exercise on subsequent cycling performance","volume":"29","author":"Palmer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/S1440-2440(99)80178-9","article-title":"Determination of optimal pacing strategy in track cycling with an energy flow model","volume":"2","author":"Bobbert","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.1080\/001401300750003899","article-title":"Pacing Strategies during a Cycling Trial with Simulated Headwinds and Tailwinds","volume":"43","author":"Atkinson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199708000-00017","article-title":"A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind","volume":"29","author":"Swain","year":"1997","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1007\/s00158-012-0856-7","article-title":"Numerical optimization of pacing strategy in cross-country skiing","volume":"47","author":"Carlson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Struct. Multidiscip. Optim."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200636080-00006","article-title":"The Role of Information Processing Between the Brain and Peripheral Physiological Systems in Pacing and Perception of Effort","volume":"36","author":"Lambert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3256","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000001424","article-title":"An analysis of the pacing strategies adopted by elite cross-country skiers","volume":"30","author":"Losnegard","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1080\/15438627.2015.1005298","article-title":"Exercise Intensity and Pacing Strategy of Cross-country Skiers during a 10 km Skating Simulated Race","volume":"23","author":"Formenti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welde, B., St\u00f6ggl, T.L., Mathisen, G.E., Supej, M., Zoppirolli, C., Winther, A.K., Pellegrini, B., and Holmberg, H.C. (2017). The pacing strategy and technique of male cross-country skiers with different levels of performance during a 15-km classical race. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187111"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Routledge. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Losnegard, T., Tosterud, O.K., Kjeldsen, K., Olstad, \u00d8., and Kocbach, J. (2022). Cross-Country Skiers With a Fast-Start Pacing Pattern Increase Time-Trial Performance by Use of a More Even Pacing Strategy. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2021-0394"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Persson, B.N.J., and Tosatti, E. (1996). A Review of the Friction Of Snow. Physics of Sliding Friction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-8705-1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2003.010801","article-title":"An analysis of the pacing strategy adopted by elite competitors in 2000 m rowing","volume":"39","author":"Garland","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"6","article-title":"A Comparison of Selected Kinematic Variables Between Races in National to Elite Male 200 m Breaststroke Swimmers","volume":"16","author":"Thompson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Swim. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-837468","article-title":"Influence of Pacing Strategy on Oxygen Uptake During Treadmill Middle-Distance Running","volume":"27","author":"Sandals","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2000.89.4.1522","article-title":"Scientific approach to the 1-h cycling world record: A case study","volume":"89","author":"Padilla","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2018.1450899","article-title":"The influence of pacing strategy on marathon world records","volume":"18","author":"Diaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2001-15644","article-title":"Impact of starting strategy on cycling performance","volume":"22","author":"Mattern","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02844115","article-title":"Dirt absorption on the ski running surface\u2014Quantification and influence on the gliding ability","volume":"9","author":"Kuzmin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sports Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-004-1267-4","article-title":"Impaired exercise performance in the heat is associated with an anticipatory reduction in skeletal muscle recruitment","volume":"448","author":"Tucker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pflug. Arch."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-009-1300-6","article-title":"Effect of performance level on pacing strategy during a 10-km running race","volume":"108","author":"Bertuzzi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410600944709","article-title":"Variable versus constant power strategies during cycling time-trials: Prediction of time savings using an up-to-date mathematical model","volume":"25","author":"Atkinson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2017-0878","article-title":"Mechanisms of Performance Improvements Due to a Leading Teammate During Uphill Cycling","volume":"13","author":"Ouvrard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/8\/4589\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:51:43Z","timestamp":1760136703000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/8\/4589"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19084589"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19084589","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,11]]}}}