{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T23:33:12Z","timestamp":1778196792191,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]],"date-time":"2022-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652140800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41901389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41901389"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020B1212030009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1212030009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Guangdong Science and Technology Strategic Innovation Fund (the Guangdong\u2013Hong Kong-Macau Joint Laboratory Program)","award":["41901389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41901389"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Science and Technology Strategic Innovation Fund (the Guangdong\u2013Hong Kong-Macau Joint Laboratory Program)","award":["2020B1212030009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1212030009"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Science and Technology Strategic Innovation Fund (the Guangdong\u2013Hong Kong-Macau Joint Laboratory Program)","award":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Digital Twin Technologies for Cities","award":["41901389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41901389"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Digital Twin Technologies for Cities","award":["2020B1212030009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1212030009"]}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Digital Twin Technologies for Cities","award":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDSYS20210623101800001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Exposure to inhalable particulate matter pollution is a hazard to human health. Many studies have examined the in-transit particulate matter pollution across multiple travel modes. However, limited information is available on the comparison of in-transit exposure among cities that experience different climates and weather patterns. This study aimed to examine the variations in in-cabin particle concentrations during taxi, bus, and metro commutes among four megacities located in the inland and coastal areas of China. To this end, we employed a portable monitoring approach to measure in-transit particle concentrations and the corresponding transit conditions using spatiotemporal information. The results highlighted significant differences in in-cabin particle concentrations among the four cities, indicating that PM concentrations varied in an ascending order of, and the ratios of different-sized particle concentrations varied in a descending order of CS, SZ, GZ, and WH. Variations in in-cabin particle concentrations during bus and metro transits between cities were mainly positively associated with urban background particle concentrations. Unlike those in bus and metro transit, in-cabin PM concentrations in taxi transit were negatively associated with urban precipitation and wind speed. The variations in particle concentrations during the trip were significantly associated with passenger density, posture, the in-cabin location of investigators, and window condition, some of which showed interactive effects. Our findings suggest that improving the urban background environment is essential for reducing particulate pollution in public transport microenvironments. Moreover, optimizing the scheduling of buses and the distribution of bus stops might contribute to mitigating the in-cabin exposure levels in transit. With reference to our methods and insights, policymakers and other researchers may further explore in-transit exposure to particle pollution in different cities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19105830","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]],"date-time":"2022-05-10T21:52:11Z","timestamp":1652219531000},"page":"5830","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Comparison of Particulate Exposure Levels during Taxi, Bus, and Metro Commuting among Four Chinese Megacities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ying","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhengdong","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiacheng","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2022, April 25). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.12.023","article-title":"Comparison of air pollution exposures in active vs. passive travel modes in European cities: A quantitative review","volume":"99","author":"Bode","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.02.065","article-title":"A review of commuter exposure to ultrafine particles and its health effects","volume":"45","author":"Knibbs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.05.046","article-title":"A review of factors impacting exposure to PM2.5, ultrafine particles and black carbon in Asian transport microenvironments","volume":"187","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1080\/02772248.2014.959317","article-title":"A comparison of toxicity mechanisms of dust storm particles collected in the southwest of Iran on lung and skin using isolated mitochondria","volume":"96","author":"Rezaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Environ. Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1576","article-title":"Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015","volume":"391","author":"Cohen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09155-4","article-title":"Advancing environmental exposure assessment science to benefit society","volume":"10","author":"Caplin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2013.04.028","article-title":"Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review","volume":"77","author":"Pant","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(16)30021-4","article-title":"Levels of ambient air pollution according to mode of transport: A systematic review","volume":"2","author":"Cepeda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2021.103086","article-title":"Assessment of personal exposure to PM for multiple transportation modes","volume":"101","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2017.01.019","article-title":"Exposure to air pollutants during commuting in London: Are there inequalities among different socio-economic groups?","volume":"101","author":"Rivas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901622","article-title":"Commuters\u2019 Exposure to Particulate Matter Air Pollution Is Affected by Mode of Transport, Fuel Type, and Route","volume":"118","author":"Zuurbier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2021.111620","article-title":"A field study of CO2 and particulate matter characteristics during the transition season in the subway system in Tianjin, China","volume":"254","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.10.004","article-title":"Effect of mode shift from car to light rail on personal exposure: A controlled experiment","volume":"196","author":"Hong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2018.06.007","article-title":"Exposure to noise and air pollution by mode of transportation during rush hours in Montreal","volume":"70","author":"Apparicio","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41612-018-0023-y","article-title":"Dynamics of coarse and fine particle exposure in transport microenvironments","volume":"1","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"NPJ Clim. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngoc, L.T.N., Kim, M., Bui, V.K.H., Park, D., and Lee, Y.-C. (2018). Particulate Matter Exposure of Passengers at Bus Stations: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15122886"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2017.06.016","article-title":"Air quality inside subway metro indoor environment worldwide: A review","volume":"107","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jth.2021.101064","article-title":"Assessing the exposure to air pollution during transport in urban areas\u2014Evidence review","volume":"21","author":"Mitsakou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transp. Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2021.107907","article-title":"Characteristics of indoor air quality in underground metro stations: A critical review","volume":"198","author":"Passi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.10.055","article-title":"Where to locate transit stops: Cross-intersection profiles of ultrafine particles and implications for pedestrian exposure","volume":"233","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.02.002","article-title":"Characterisation of nanoparticle emissions and exposure at traffic intersections through fast\u2013response mobile and sequential measurements","volume":"107","author":"Goel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.3141\/2428-07","article-title":"Comparison of Fine Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide Exposure Concentrations for Selected Transportation Modes","volume":"2428","author":"Jiao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.10.025","article-title":"The behaviour of traffic produced nanoparticles in a car cabin and resulting exposure rates","volume":"65","author":"Joodatnia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.05.036","article-title":"Assessment of personal exposure to particulate air pollution during commuting in European cities\u2014Recommendations and policy implications","volume":"490","author":"Karanasiou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.12.012","article-title":"Particulates and noise exposure during bicycle, bus and car commuting: A study in three European cities","volume":"154","author":"Okokon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5713","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b05775","article-title":"Metro Commuter Exposures to Particulate Air Pollution and PM2.5-Associated Elements in Three Canadian Cities: The Urban Transportation Exposure Study","volume":"51","author":"Anastasopolos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1021\/es504043a","article-title":"In-Vehicle Exposures to Particulate Air Pollution in Canadian Metropolitan Areas: The Urban Transportation Exposure Study","volume":"49","author":"Weichenthal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2017.09.056","article-title":"Particle exposure and inhaled dose during commuting in Singapore","volume":"170","author":"Tan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"TSI_Inc (2012). DUSTTRAK\u2122 Drx Aerosol Monitor Theory of Operation\u2014Application Note Expmn-002, TSI Incorporated."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"TSI_Inc (2013). Rationale for Programming a Photometer Calibration Factor (PCF) of 0.38 for Ambient Monitoring, TSI Incorporated."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1080\/02786820903045141","article-title":"A Novel Optical Instrument for Estimating Size Segregated Aerosol Mass Concentration in Real Time","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2016.1201022","article-title":"Comparison of real-time instruments and gravimetric method when measuring particulate matter in a residential building","volume":"66","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patton, A.P., Calderon, L., Xiong, Y., Wang, Z., Senick, J., Allacci, M.S., Plotnik, D., Wener, R., Andrews, C.J., and Krogmann, U. (2016). Airborne Particulate Matter in Two Multi-Family Green Buildings: Concentrations and Effect of Ventilation and Occupant Behavior. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13010144"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8760","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01594","article-title":"Sequential Measurement of Intermodal Variability in Public Transportation PM2.5 and CO Exposure Concentrations","volume":"50","author":"Che","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113136","article-title":"A feasible experimental framework for field calibration of portable light-scattering aerosol monitors: Case of TSI DustTrak","volume":"255","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500486","article-title":"Field performance of a nephelometer in rural kitchens: Effects of high humidity excursions and correlations to gravimetric analyses","volume":"17","author":"Fischer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2010.15","article-title":"Validation of continuous particle monitors for personal, indoor, and outdoor exposures","volume":"21","author":"Wallace","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.01.129","article-title":"Identification of technical problems affecting performance of DustTrak DRX aerosol monitors","volume":"584\u2013585","author":"Rivas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.09.006","article-title":"Factors affecting variability in PM2.5 exposure concentrations in a metro system","volume":"160","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210165","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.210165","article-title":"Determining a Commuters\u2019 Exposure to Particle and Noise Pollution on Double-decker Buses","volume":"21","author":"Velasco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2016.08.038","article-title":"Scripted drives: A robust protocol for generating exposures to traffic-related air pollution","volume":"143","author":"Patton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/10\/5830\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:08:58Z","timestamp":1760137738000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/10\/5830"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19105830"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19105830","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]]}}}