{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T19:32:23Z","timestamp":1791228743312,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]],"date-time":"2022-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652227200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006636","name":"FORTE\u2014Swedish Research Council for Health Working Life and Welfare","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019-01226"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-01226"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006636","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The COVID-19 crisis is a global event that has created and amplified social inequalities, including an already existing and steadily increasing problem of employment and income insecurity and erosion of workplace rights, affecting workers globally. The aim of this exploratory study was to review employment-related determinants of health and health protection during the pandemic, or more specifically, to examine several links between non-standard employment, unemployment, economic, health, and safety outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden, Belgium, Spain, Canada, the United States, and Chile, based on an online survey conducted from November 2020 to June 2021. The study focused on both non-standard workers and unemployed workers and examined worker outcomes in the context of current type and duration of employment arrangements, as well as employment transitions triggered by the COVID-19 crisis. The results suggest that COVID-19-related changes in non-standard worker employment arrangements, or unemployment, are related to changes in work hours, income, and benefits, as well as the self-reported prevalence of suffering from severe to extreme anxiety or depression. The results also suggest a link between worker type, duration of employment arrangements, or unemployment, and the ability to cover regular expenses during the pandemic. Additionally, the findings indicate that the type and duration of employment arrangements are related to the provision of personal protective equipment or other COVID-19 protection measures. This study provides additional evidence that workers in non-standard employment and the unemployed have experienced numerous and complex adverse effects of the pandemic and require additional protection through tailored pandemic responses and recovery strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19105865","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]],"date-time":"2022-05-11T10:19:46Z","timestamp":1652264386000},"page":"5865","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Non-Standard Employment and Unemployment during the COVID-19 Crisis: Economic and Health Findings from a Six-Country Survey Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3104-9539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Virginia","family":"Gunn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada"},{"name":"Lawrence S. Bloomberg Faculty of Nursing, St. George Campus, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5851-0693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandra","family":"Vives","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Santiago 8330077, Chile"},{"name":"CEDEUS\u2014Center for Sustainable Urban Development, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Santiago 7520246, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4062-403X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Zaupa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Santiago 8330077, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0878-667X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julio C.","family":"Hernando-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7432-0942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mireia","family":"Juli\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESIMar (Mar Nursing School), Parc de Salut Mar, Universitat Pompeu Fabra-Affiliated, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Social Determinants and Health Education Research Group (SDHEd), Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group on Health Inequalities, Environment, and Employment Conditions Network (GREDS-EMCONET), Department of Political and Social Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08005 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Signild","family":"Kvart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4070-6895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wayne","family":"Lewchuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics and School of Labour Studies, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8P4M9, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6367-4860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Padrosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESIMar (Mar Nursing School), Parc de Salut Mar, Universitat Pompeu Fabra-Affiliated, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Social Determinants and Health Education Research Group (SDHEd), Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Research Group on Health Inequalities, Environment, and Employment Conditions Network (GREDS-EMCONET), Department of Political and Social Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08005 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3602-2837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mattias Philippe","family":"Vos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interface Demography, Department of Sociology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0572-5276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily Q.","family":"Ahonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3958-1458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sherry","family":"Baron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Barry Commoner Center for Health and the Environment, Queens College, City University of New York, New York, NY 11367, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6326-2417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kim","family":"Bosmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interface Demography, Department of Sociology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Letitia","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Boston, MA 02108, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ignacio","family":"D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Santiago 8330077, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5249-102X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuria","family":"Matilla-Santander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3535-467X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carles","family":"Muntaner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lawrence S. Bloomberg Faculty of Nursing, St. George Campus, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada"},{"name":"Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Mental Health, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MA 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4549-7324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia","family":"O\u2019Campo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada"},{"name":"Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7903-6668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Per-Olof","family":"\u00d6stergren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Social Medicine and Global Health, Department of Clinical Sciences Malm\u00f6, Lund University, 20205 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8619-8553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christophe","family":"Vanroelen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interface Demography, Department of Sociology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilia F.","family":"Vignola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Community Health and Social Sciences, Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy, City University of New York, New York, NY 10025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2074-5857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theo","family":"Bodin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Occupational Medicine, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"},{"name":"Center for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Stockholm Region, 11365 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"ILO (2020). COVID-19: Social Protection Systems Failing Vulnerable Groups, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"ILO (2021). ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of Work, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ILO (2022). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2022, International Labour Office.","DOI":"10.1002\/wow3.179"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.2190\/607H-TTV0-QCN6-YLT4","article-title":"The global expansion of precarious employment, work disorganization, and consequences for occupational health: A review of recent research","volume":"31","author":"Quinlan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"UN (2020). A UN Framework for the Immediate Socio-Economic Response to COVID-19."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"UN (2020). UN Calls for Measures to Cushion COVID-19 Shocks to Labour Market."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthpol.2011.11.002","article-title":"Welfare states, flexible employment, and health: A critical review","volume":"104","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Health Policy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1080\/135017600343160","article-title":"The viability of advanced welfare states in the international economy: Vulnerabilities and options","volume":"7","author":"Scharpf","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Eur. Public Policy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro, V., and Muntaner, C. (2014). The Financial and Economic Crises and Their Impact on Health and Social Well-Being, Baywood Publishing Company, Inc.","DOI":"10.2190\/TFA"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ng, M.A., Naranjo, A., Schlotzhauer, A.E., Shoss, M.K., Kartvelishvili, N., Bartek, M., Ingraham, K., Rodriguez, A., Schneider, S.K., and Silverlieb-Seltzer, L. (2021). Has the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the future of work or changed its course? Implications for research and practice. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph181910199"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"OECD (2020). Distributional Risks Associated with Non-Standard Work: Stylised Facts and Policy Consideration, Tackling Coronavirus (COVID-19): Contributing to a Global Effort."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764212466239","article-title":"Precarious, Informalizing, and Flexible Work: Transforming Concepts and Understandings","volume":"57","author":"Arnold","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"ILO (2016). Non-Standard Employment around the World: Understanding Challenges, Shaping Prospects, ILO."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaughan-Whitehead, D., Ghellab, Y., and Mu\u00f1oz de Bustillo Llorente, R. (2021). The New World of Work: Challenges and Opportunities for Social Partners and Labour Institutions, International Labour Office.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781800888050"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumner, A., Hoy, C., and Ortiz-Juarez, E. (2020). Estimates of the Impact of COVID-19 on Global Poverty, UNU-WIDER.","DOI":"10.35188\/UNU-WIDER\/2020\/800-9"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"ILO (2022, February 22). COVID-19 Responses Must Be Built on Human Solidarity, ILO Tells World Bank\/IMF. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/global\/about-the-ilo\/newsroom\/news\/WCMS_741905\/lang--en\/index.htm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purkayastha, D., Vanroelen, C., Bircan, T., Vantyghem, M.A., and Gantelet Adsera, C. (2021). Work, Health and COVID-19: A Literature Review, European Trade Union Institute.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3856915"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iv40","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckab159","article-title":"Precarious employment and health in the context of COVID-19: A rapid scoping umbrella review","volume":"31","author":"McNamara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.3956","article-title":"The COVID-19 pandemic: One year later\u2014An occupational perspective","volume":"47","author":"Burdorf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Work Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"ILO (2021). World Social Protection Report 2020\u201322. Social Protection at the Crossroads\u2014In Pursuit of a Better Future, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e259","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(20)30088-8","article-title":"Alcohol use and misuse during the COVID-19 pandemic: A potential public health crisis?","volume":"5","author":"Clay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30168-1","article-title":"Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science","volume":"7","author":"Holmes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaceta.2021.03.001","article-title":"On Case and Deaton\u2019s deaths of despair: Implications for health inequalities research in the post-COVID-19 era","volume":"35","author":"Muntaner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gac. Sanit."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.3978","article-title":"Low-quality employment trajectories and risk of common mental disorders, substance use disorders and suicide attempt: A longitudinal study of the Swedish workforce","volume":"47","author":"Jonsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Work Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1007","article-title":"A Literature Review of the Economics of COVID-19","volume":"35","author":"Brodeur","year":"2020","journal-title":"SSRN Electron. J."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"ILO (2022). COVID-19 and the World of Work: Country Policy Responses, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iversen, T., and Soskice, D. (2019). Democracy and Prosperity: Reinventing Capitalism through a Turbulent Century, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.23943\/princeton\/9780691182735.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, P.A., and Soskice, D. (2001). Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/0199247757.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1177\/095892879100100108"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1177\/095892879600600102","article-title":"The Southern model of welfare in social Europe","volume":"6","author":"Ferrera","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Eur. Soc. Policy"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"OECD (2021, December 07). Employment and Labour Market Statistics; Indicators. Available online: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/employment\/data\/oecd-employment-and-labour-market-statistics_lfs-data-en."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"OECD (2020). OECD Employment Outlook 2020."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-011-9903-x","article-title":"Development and preliminary testing of the new five-level version of EQ-5D (EQ-5D-5L)","volume":"20","author":"Herdman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s11187-021-00544-y","article-title":"Economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on entrepreneurship and small businesses","volume":"58","author":"Belitski","year":"2021","journal-title":"IZA DP No.14630. Small Bus. Econ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1177\/0020731420986694","article-title":"COVID-19 and Precarious Employment: Consequences of the Evolving Crisis","volume":"51","author":"Ahonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/00207314211002785","article-title":"COVID-19 economic response and recovery: A rapid scoping review","volume":"51","author":"Mawani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Eurofound, and ILO (2017). Working Anytime, Anywhere: The Effects on the World of Work."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"ILO (2021). ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of Work: Updated Estimates and Analysis, International Labour Office. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"ILO (2020). ; OECD. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Jobs and Incomes in G20 Economies, International Labour Office."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10901-013-9391-0","article-title":"Swedish welfare state and housing markets: Under economic and political pressure","volume":"29","author":"Holmqvist","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hous. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bull, M., and Gross, A. (2018). Housing in America: An Introduction, Routledge. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315309132"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Zwart, S. (2015). Maintaining an Efficient and Equitable Housing Market in Belgium, OECD Publishing. OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No.1208."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Brownell, C. (2022, March 05). Renters across Canada are Banding together to Fight High Housing Costs and Evictions. Maclean\u2019s (Online). Available online: https:\/\/www.macleans.ca\/news\/renters-across-canada-are-banding-together-to-fight-high-housing-costs-and-evictions\/."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02143-7","article-title":"Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"398","author":"Santomauro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30308-4","article-title":"Mental health before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal probability sample survey of the UK population","volume":"7","author":"Pierce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Davey, G. (2018). The Anxiety Epidemic: The Causes of Our Modern-Day Anxieties, Robinson, An Imprint of Little, Brown Book Group."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.-S., and Park, S. (2019). Patterns of Change in Employment Status and Their Association with Self-Rated Health, Perceived Daily Stress, and Sleep among Young Adults in South Korea. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16224491"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2015). The Global Health Observatory Indicators: Estimated Population-Based Prevalence of Depression."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"European Statistical System\u2014Eurostat (2019). Health Status Indicators\u2014Persons Reprting Chronic Depression, European Statistical System\u2014Eurostat."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"OECD (2021). National estimates of prevalence of depression or symptoms of depression, pre-COVID-19, 2020 and 2021, Health at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Eurofound (2021). Initiatives to Improve Conditions for Platform Workers: Aims, Methods, Strengths and Weaknesses."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naicker, N., Pega, F., Rees, D., Kgalamono, S., and Singh, T. (2021). Health services use and health outcomes among informal economy workers compared with formal economy workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18063189"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"ILO (2022, February 08). Global Call to Action for a Human-Centred Recovery from the COVID-19 Crisis that Is Inclusive, Sustainable and Resilient. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/wcmsp5\/groups\/public\/@ed_norm\/@relconf\/documents\/meetingdocument\/wcms_806092.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S76","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02619-2","article-title":"Variations in the incidence of common mental disorder symptoms in the general population throughout the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"398","author":"Saunders","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1093\/tbm\/ibab030","article-title":"Trends in mental health symptoms, service use, and unmet need for services among U.S. adults through the first 9 months of the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"11","author":"Coley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"ILO (2022, March 05). Country Policy Responses. COVID-19 and the World of Work. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/global\/topics\/coronavirus\/regional-country\/country-responses\/lang--en\/index.htm."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Hale, T., Anania, J., Andretti de Mello, B., Angrist, N., and Barnes, R. (2022). Variation in Government Responses to COVID-19, University of Oxford. Version 13.0."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/s10823-020-09415-7","article-title":"In Conversation with a Frontline Worker in a Care Home in Sweden during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"35","author":"Kabir","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Ministry of Health and Social Affairs (2020). Care for the Elderly during the Pandemic. Interim Report of the Commission on COVID-19, Swedish Government Official Reports, (In Swedish)."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2010.06.013","article-title":"Precarious employment, working hours, work-life conflict and health in hotel work","volume":"42","author":"McNamara","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq291","article-title":"Web-based Questionnaires: The Future in Epidemiology?","volume":"172","author":"Bretveld","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0221529","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221529","article-title":"Accuracy of online survey assessment of mental disorders and suicidal thoughts and behaviors in Spanish university students. Results of the WHO World Mental Health\u2014International College Student initiative","volume":"14","author":"Ballester","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/10\/5865\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:09:27Z","timestamp":1760137767000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/10\/5865"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19105865"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19105865","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]}}}