{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T21:09:51Z","timestamp":1791407391184,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]],"date-time":"2022-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"King Faisal University","award":["1026374049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1026374049"]}]},{"name":"King Faisal University","award":["91718336"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["91718336"]}]},{"name":"the Netherlands Scientific Organization","award":["1026374049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1026374049"]}]},{"name":"the Netherlands Scientific Organization","award":["91718336"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["91718336"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trauma exposure is one of the most important and prevalent risk factors for mental and physical ill-health. Prolonged or excessive stress exposure increases the risk of a wide variety of mental and physical symptoms, resulting in a condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The diagnosis might be challenging due to the complex pathophysiology and co-existence with other mental disorders. The prime factor for PTSD development is exposure to a stressor, which variably, along with peritraumatic conditions, affects disease progression and severity. Additionally, many factors are thought to influence the response to the stressor, and hence reshape the natural history and course of the disease. With sufficient knowledge about the disease, preventive and intervenient methods can be implemented to improve the quality of life of the patients and to limit both the medical and economic burden of the disease. This literature review provides a highlight of up-to-date literature on traumatic stress, with a focus on causes or triggers of stress, factors that influence response to stress, disease burden, and the application of the social-ecological public health model of disease prevention. In addition, it addresses therapeutic aspects, ethnic differences in traumatic stress, and future perspectives, including potential biomarkers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19116474","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]],"date-time":"2022-05-26T08:50:22Z","timestamp":1653555022000},"page":"6474","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["A Public Health Perspective of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9414-4309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ghazi I.","family":"Al Jowf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6737-0194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ziyad T.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Sulaiman Al Rajhi University, Al-Bukairyah 52726, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rick A.","family":"Reijnders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6975-8213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Ambrosino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Public Health Genomics, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Research School GROW (School for Oncology and Reproduction), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bart P. F.","family":"Rutten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"de Nijs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6473-2839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lars M. T.","family":"Eijssen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Bioinformatics\u2014BiGCaT, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22279","article-title":"DSM-5 and ICD-11 definitions of posttraumatic stress disorder: Investigating \u201cnarrow\u201d and \u201cbroad\u201d approaches","volume":"31","author":"Stein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.1.10","article-title":"Childhood traumas: An outline and overview","volume":"148","author":"Terr","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145713001090","article-title":"Genetic approaches to understanding post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"17","author":"Almli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burri, A., and Maercker, A. (2014). Differences in prevalence rates of PTSD in various European countries explained by war exposure, other trauma and cultural value orientation. BMC Res. Notes, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-7-407"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.03.030","article-title":"PTSD and traumatic stress from gene to community and bench to bedside","volume":"1293","author":"Ursano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2006.09.004","article-title":"Is PTSD caused by traumatic stress?","volume":"21","author":"Bodkin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.64.5.577","article-title":"Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood","volume":"64","author":"Copeland","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Ford, J.D., Grasso, D.J., Elhai, J.D., and Courtois, C.A. (2015). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Scientific and Professional Dimensions, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey","volume":"52","author":"Kessler","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00123-0","article-title":"A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"38","author":"Ehlers","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.7202\/032383ar","article-title":"Behavioral and cognitive models of post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"21","author":"Brillon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sante Ment. Au Que."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foa, E.B., and Rothbaum, B.O. (1999). Treating the Trauma of Rape: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for PTSD, Guilford Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/e572212010-001"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CHI.0000046822.95464.14","article-title":"New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children","volume":"42","author":"Scheeringa","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1097\/01.chi.0000169013.81536.71","article-title":"Predictive validity in a prospective follow-up of PTSD in preschool children","volume":"44","author":"Scheeringa","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.06.056","article-title":"Exploring mood symptoms overlap in PTSD diagnosis: ICD-11 and DSM-5 criteria compared in a sample of subjects with Bipolar Disorder","volume":"276","author":"Carmassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00085","article-title":"Investigating Individual Pre-trauma Susceptibility to a PTSD-Like Phenotype in Animals","volume":"13","author":"Alexander","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11126-020-09797-4","article-title":"Psychiatric Co-Morbidities in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Detailed Findings from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey in the English Population","volume":"92","author":"Qassem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Q."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"32","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder: From diagnosis to prevention","volume":"5","author":"Miao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mil. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e026670","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-026670","article-title":"Cohort profile: The Prospective Research In Stress-Related Military Operations (PRISMO) study in the Dutch Armed Forces","volume":"9","author":"Gorter","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"12","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbidity: Recognizing the many faces of PTSD","volume":"58","author":"Brady","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0879(199809)5:3<126::AID-CPP153>3.0.CO;2-H","article-title":"Comparative efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A metaanalysis","volume":"5","author":"Taylor","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Jowf, G.I., Snijders, C., Rutten, B.P.F., de Nijs, L., and Eijssen, L.M.T. (2021). The Molecular Biology of Susceptibility to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Highlights of Epigenetics and Epigenomics. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910743"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2017_32","article-title":"MicroRNAs in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"38","author":"Snijders","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01161-7","article-title":"Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies","volume":"27","author":"Solmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"7","article-title":"Mental Illness Will Cost the World $16 Trillion (USD) by 2030","volume":"28","author":"Canady","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ment. Health Wkly."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31612-X","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development","volume":"392","author":"Patel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.3350\/cmh.2014.20.4.327","article-title":"Cost-of-illness studies: Concepts, scopes, and methods","volume":"20","author":"Jo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Mol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e161","DOI":"10.1017\/S204579602000075X","article-title":"The cost of mental disorders: A systematic review","volume":"29","author":"Christensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"202","article-title":"Household Health Costs: Direct, Indirect and Intangible","volume":"43","author":"Yousefi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753940","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2020.1753940","article-title":"Economic evaluations and cost analyses in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Dams","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22008","article-title":"The Economic Burden of PTSD in Northern Ireland","volume":"28","author":"Ferry","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1007\/s10198-020-01184-x","article-title":"How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data","volume":"21","author":"Bothe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Health Econ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s40273-019-00849-7","article-title":"Economic Burden of Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"38","author":"Konnopka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacoeconomics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.2147\/CEOR.S259338","article-title":"The Economic Burden of Bipolar Disorder in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"12","author":"Bessonova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Outcomes Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2528","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.293.20.2528","article-title":"The increasing medical burden in bipolar disorder","volume":"293","author":"Kupfer","year":"2005","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1968.tb02103.x","article-title":"Cumulative illness rating scale","volume":"16","author":"Linn","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/59.10.M1068","article-title":"Measuring medical burden using CIRS in older veterans enrolled in UPBEAT, a psychogeriatric treatment program: A pilot study","volume":"59","author":"Mistry","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(92)90005-N","article-title":"Rating chronic medical illness burden in geropsychiatric practice and research: Application of the Cumulative Illness Rating Scale","volume":"41","author":"Miller","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.10486","article-title":"A Public Health Perspective on Mental and Medical Comorbidity","volume":"316","author":"Walker","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mental disorders and medical comorbidity","volume":"2","author":"Goodell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Robert Wood Johns. Found."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-010-1497-4","article-title":"Medical care needs of returning veterans with PTSD: Their other burden","volume":"26","author":"Frayne","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2018.12.030","article-title":"Co-occurring substance use and mental disorders among adults with opioid use disorder","volume":"197","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Depend."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2015.261","article-title":"Prevention of Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders: A Review","volume":"41","author":"Howlett","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Black, D.W., and Grant, J.E. (2014). DSM-5\u00ae Guidebook: The Essential Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Pub."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.143.7.817","article-title":"\u201cWorse than death\u201d: Psychodynamics of rape victims and the need for psychotherapy","volume":"143","author":"Rose","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291701004287","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being","volume":"31","author":"Creamer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.61.6.984","article-title":"Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women","volume":"61","author":"Resnick","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2006.163.10.1777","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in battle-injured soldiers","volume":"163","author":"Grieger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa072972","article-title":"Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. Soldiers returning from Iraq","volume":"358","author":"Hoge","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291712002619","article-title":"What explains post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in UK service personnel: Deployment or something else?","volume":"43","author":"Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1132","article-title":"Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"302","author":"Steel","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20496","article-title":"Mental health of children living in war zones: A risk and protection perspective","volume":"17","author":"Catani","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jawaid, A., Gomolka, M., and Timmer, A. (2022). Neuroscience of trauma and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Nat. Hum. Behav.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01344-4"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(22)00097-9","article-title":"Addressing the mental health needs of civilian combatants in Ukraine","volume":"9","author":"Bryant","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.156.8.1223","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up","volume":"156","author":"Widom","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20478","article-title":"A prospective study of sex differences in the lifetime risk of posttraumatic stress disorder among abused and neglected children grown up","volume":"22","author":"Koenen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.153.7.83","article-title":"Dissociation, somatization, and affect dysregulation: The complexity of adaptation of trauma","volume":"153","author":"Pelcovitz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edmondson, D., Richardson, S., Falzon, L., Davidson, K.W., Mills, M.A., and Neria, Y. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder prevalence and risk of recurrence in acute coronary syndrome patients: A meta-analytic review. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038915"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.120.031109","article-title":"Medications as Traumatic Reminders in Patients With Stroke\/Transient Ischemic Attack-Induced Posttraumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"52","author":"Birk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000882","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in critical illness survivors: A metaanalysis","volume":"43","author":"Parker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1521\/psyc.65.3.207.20173","article-title":"60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981\u20132001","volume":"65","author":"Norris","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxi003","article-title":"The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters","volume":"27","author":"Galea","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852900018198","article-title":"An investigation of the psychological effects of the September 11, 2001, attacks on New York City: Developing and implementing research in the acute postdisaster period","volume":"7","author":"Galea","year":"2002","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007764729337","article-title":"Coping with technological disaster: An application of the conservation of resources model to the Exxon Valdez oil spill","volume":"13","author":"Arata","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2003.07.006","article-title":"The relations of PTSD symptoms to alcohol use and coping drinking in volunteers who responded to the Swissair Flight 111 airline disaster","volume":"18","author":"Stewart","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3109\/10401230109148952","article-title":"A prospective study of coping after exposure to a mass murder episode","volume":"13","author":"North","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00635","article-title":"The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: I: The incidence and course of PTSD","volume":"41","author":"Yule","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1521\/psyc.65.4.289.20240","article-title":"Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks","volume":"65","author":"Ahern","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.68.5.748","article-title":"Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults","volume":"68","author":"Brewin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113347","article-title":"Prevalence of posttraumatic and general psychological stress during COVID-19: A rapid review and meta-analysis","volume":"292","author":"Cooke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bridgland, V.M.E., Moeck, E.K., Green, D.M., Swain, T.L., Nayda, D.M., Matson, L.A., Hutchison, N.P., and Takarangi, M.K.T. (2021). Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240146"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2016.07.005","article-title":"Childhood emotional maltreatment and mental disorders: Results from a nationally representative adult sample from the United States","volume":"59","author":"Taillieu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child. Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2016.04.022","article-title":"Contributions of risk and protective factors to prediction of psychological symptoms after traumatic experiences","volume":"69","author":"Carlson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, J.G. (2018). Mentalizing in the Development and Treatment of Attachment Trauma, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429477263"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Cassidy, J., and Shaver, P.R. (1999). Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, Rough Guides."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anthony, R., Paine, A.L., Westlake, M., Lowthian, E., and Shelton, K.H. (2020). Patterns of adversity and post-traumatic stress among children adopted from care. Child Abus. Negl., 104795.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104795"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christ, C., de Waal, M.M., Dekker, J.J.M., van Kuijk, I., van Schaik, D.J.F., Kikkert, M.J., Goudriaan, A.E., Beekman, A.T.F., and Messman-Moore, T.L. (2019). Linking childhood emotional abuse and depressive symptoms: The role of emotion dysregulation and interpersonal problems. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211882"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1072290","article-title":"Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children","volume":"297","author":"Caspi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-018-1105-4","article-title":"Emotion regulation difficulties in traumatized youth: A meta-analysis and conceptual review","volume":"27","author":"Villalta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.133.2.183","article-title":"Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"133","author":"Olff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsv053","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress and age variation in amygdala volumes among youth exposed to trauma","volume":"10","author":"Weems","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2922","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2018.6242","article-title":"Age-Accelerated Reduction in Cortical Surface Area in United States Service Members and Veterans with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"36","author":"Santhanam","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.1.52","article-title":"Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis","volume":"129","author":"Ozer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22169","article-title":"Cumulative traumas and risk thresholds: 12-month PTSD in the World Mental Health (WMH) surveys","volume":"31","author":"Karam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019362","article-title":"Spontaneous remission from PTSD depends on the number of traumatic event types experienced","volume":"2","author":"Kolassa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol. Trauma: Theory Res. Pract. Policy"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2017.04.009","article-title":"Relationship between event type and mental health outcomes: Event centrality as mediator","volume":"114","author":"Reiland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s12991-018-0184-4","article-title":"Exploring PTSD in emergency operators of a major University Hospital in Italy: A preliminary report on the role of gender, age, and education","volume":"17","author":"Carmassi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22628","article-title":"Predictors of PTSD 40 years after combat: Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans longitudinal study","volume":"34","author":"Steenkamp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kakaje, A., Al Zohbi, R., Hosam Aldeen, O., Makki, L., Alyousbashi, A., and Alhaffar, M.B.A. (2021). Mental disorder and PTSD in Syria during wartime: A nationwide crisis. BMC Psychiatry, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-03002-3"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351204","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2017.1351204","article-title":"Sex and gender differences in post-traumatic stress disorder: An update","volume":"8","author":"Olff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2017.09.008","article-title":"Post-traumatic Stress Disorder by Gender and Veteran Status","volume":"54","author":"Lehavot","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2015.05.015","article-title":"Longitudinal assessment of gender differences in the development of PTSD among US military personnel deployed in support of the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan","volume":"68","author":"Jacobson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1037\/trm0000217","article-title":"Relationships between trauma symptoms and race-based traumatic stress","volume":"26","author":"Carter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Traumatology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2016.12.005","article-title":"Recent developments in understanding ethnocultural and race differences in trauma exposure and PTSD","volume":"14","author":"Asnaani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000007","article-title":"Prevalence, risk, and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder across ethnic and racial minority groups in the United States","volume":"51","author":"Fortuna","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291710000401","article-title":"Race\/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States","volume":"41","author":"Roberts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Wallace, L.R. (2014). Risk of Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Examination of the Separate and Combined Effects of Race, Gender, and Social Context. [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan]."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009457","article-title":"Risk factors for DSM-III-R posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey","volume":"147","author":"Bromet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370204701003","article-title":"Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders","volume":"47","author":"Breslau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"637","article-title":"Race-related PTSD: The Asian American Vietnam veteran","volume":"7","author":"Loo","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1097\/01.nmd.0000168239.51714.e6","article-title":"Adverse race-related events as a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder in Asian American Vietnam veterans","volume":"193","author":"Loo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.76.2.184","article-title":"Mental health of Somali adolescent refugees: The role of trauma, stress, and perceived discrimination","volume":"76","author":"Ellis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Stoops, N. (2004). Educational Attainment in the United States: 2003. Population Characteristics, US Department of Commerce."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-006-0654-6","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of trauma, pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and gender","volume":"256","author":"Hapke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291705006161","article-title":"Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample","volume":"36","author":"Breslau","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20010","article-title":"Juvenile conduct disorder as a risk factor for trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"18","author":"Koenen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-015-0206-8","article-title":"Racial Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Vulnerability Following Hurricane Katrina Among a Sample of Adult Cigarette Smokers from New Orleans","volume":"4","author":"Alexander","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022120925907","article-title":"An exploration of the relationship between culture and resilience capacity in trauma survivors","volume":"51","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013). The Social-Ecological Model: A Framework for Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11133-0","article-title":"The world report on violence and health","volume":"360","author":"Krug","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"107","article-title":"An operational classification of disease prevention","volume":"98","author":"Gordon","year":"1983","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00113","article-title":"Bystander education training for campus sexual assault prevention: An initial meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Katz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-09-00227","article-title":"Approaches to the primary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder in the military: A review of the stress control literature","volume":"176","author":"Hourani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.2307\/3343157","article-title":"The public health approach to motor vehicles, tobacco, and alcohol, with applications to firearms policy","volume":"22","author":"Hemenway","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Public Health Policy"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-012-0560-3","article-title":"The course of posttraumatic stress symptoms and functional impairment following a disaster: What is the lasting influence of acute versus ongoing traumatic events and stressors?","volume":"48","author":"Bordelois","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7858","DOI":"10.3402\/ejpt.v2i0.7858","article-title":"Characteristics and efficacy of early psychological interventions in children and adolescents after single trauma: A meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Kramer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2011.13.2\/jzohar","article-title":"New insights into secondary prevention in post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"13","author":"Zohar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375338","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2017.1375338","article-title":"Trauma is a public health issue","volume":"8","author":"Magruder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2012.02594.x","article-title":"Practitioner review: Children in foster care--vulnerabilities and evidence-based interventions that promote resilience processes","volume":"53","author":"Leve","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Committee on the Assessment of Ongoing Effects in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, I.o.M. (2012). Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Initial Assessment, National Academies Press (US)."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-018-0277-5","article-title":"Early effects of exposure-based cognitive behaviour therapy on the neural correlates of anxiety","volume":"8","author":"Reinecke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.06.002","article-title":"Early intervention may prevent the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized pilot civilian study with modified prolonged exposure","volume":"72","author":"Rothbaum","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e31820afc63","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavior therapy tailored to psychological adaptation to an implantable cardioverter defibrillator","volume":"73","author":"Irvine","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychosom Med."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.09.036","article-title":"The impact of prolonged exposure therapy on social support and PTSD symptoms","volume":"260","author":"Bourassa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/16506073.2019.1703801","article-title":"Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"49","author":"Cuijpers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogn. Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1080\/03069885.2010.550798","article-title":"Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies","volume":"39","author":"Hudson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Guid. Couns."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foa, E., Hembree, E., and Rothbaum, B.O. (2007). Prolonged Exposure Therapy for PTSD: Emotional Processing of Traumatic Experiences Therapist Guide, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med:psych\/9780195308501.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01570-w","article-title":"Consolidation\/reconsolidation therapies for the prevention and treatment of PTSD and re-experiencing: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Horstmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2013.02.013","article-title":"Interventions to prevent post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review","volume":"44","author":"Forneris","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1080\/15622970802465807","article-title":"World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disorders\u2014First revision","volume":"9","author":"Bandelow","year":"2008","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145701002607","article-title":"beta-Adrenergic blockade and emotional memory in PTSD","volume":"4","author":"Reist","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852913000096","article-title":"The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: A randomized trial","volume":"18","author":"Delahanty","year":"2013","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2015.278","article-title":"Intranasal Oxytocin Affects Amygdala Functional Connectivity after Trauma Script-Driven Imagery in Distressed Recently Trauma-Exposed Individuals","volume":"41","author":"Frijling","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01336-3","article-title":"MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study","volume":"27","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2016.03.2108","article-title":"Higher Pretreatment Blood Pressure Is Associated With Greater Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Reduction in Soldiers Treated With Prazosin","volume":"80","author":"Raskind","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0b013e31826bc313","article-title":"A randomized stepped care intervention trial targeting posttraumatic stress disorder for surgically hospitalized injury survivors","volume":"257","author":"Zatzick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/835876","article-title":"Biomarkers in posttraumatic stress disorder: Overview and implications for future research","volume":"35","author":"Schmidt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01860.x","article-title":"Changes in anterior cingulate and amygdala after cognitive behavior therapy of posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"18","author":"Felmingham","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291707002231","article-title":"Amygdala and ventral anterior cingulate activation predicts treatment response to cognitive behaviour therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"38","author":"Bryant","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2011.08.033","article-title":"Association between serotonin transporter gene promoter-region polymorphism and 4- and 12-week treatment response to sertraline in posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"136","author":"Mushtaq","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2019.01042","article-title":"Circulating Serum MicroRNAs as Potential Diagnostic Biomarkers of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Study","volume":"10","author":"Snijders","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2019.1632964","article-title":"Biomarkers for PTSD Susceptibility and Resilience, Ethical Issues","volume":"10","author":"Bassil","year":"2019","journal-title":"AJOB Neurosci."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/11\/6474\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:19:03Z","timestamp":1760138343000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/11\/6474"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19116474"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19116474","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]}}}