{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T16:26:45Z","timestamp":1787502405838,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,2]],"date-time":"2022-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid spread of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led to high levels of fear worldwide. Given that fear is an important factor in causing psychological distress and facilitating preventive behaviors, assessing the fear of COVID-19 is important. The seven-item Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) is a widely used psychometric instrument to assess this fear. However, the factor structure of the FCV-19S remains unclear according to the current evidence. Therefore, the present study used a network analysis to provide further empirical evidence for the factor structure of FCV-19S. A total of 24,429 participants from Iran (n = 10,843), Bangladesh (n = 9906), and Norway (n = 3680) completed the FCV-19S in their local language. A network analysis (via regularized partial correlation networks) was applied to investigate the seven FCV-19S items. Moreover, relationships between the FCV-19S items were compared across gender (males vs. females), age groups (18\u201330 years, 31\u201350 years, and &gt;50 years), and countries (Iran, Bangladesh, and Norway). A two-factor structure pattern was observed (three items concerning physical factors, including clammy hands, insomnia, and heart palpitations; four items concerning psychosocial factors, including being afraid, uncomfortable, afraid of dying, and anxious about COVID-19 news). Moreover, this pattern was found to be the same among men and women, across age groups and countries. The network analysis used in the present study verified the two-factor structure for the FCV-19S. Future studies may consider using the two-factor structure of FCV-19S to assess the fear of COVID-19 during the COVID-19 era.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19116824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,2]],"date-time":"2022-06-02T11:05:02Z","timestamp":1654167902000},"page":"6824","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["A Network Analysis of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S): A Large-Scale Cross-Cultural Study in Iran, Bangladesh, and Norway"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0080-1062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oscar","family":"Lecuona","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, King Juan Carlos University, 28933 M\u00f3stoles, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2129-4242","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chung-Ying","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan"},{"name":"Biostatistics Consulting Center, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dmitri","family":"Rozgonjuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Psychology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Tartu, 50090 Tartu, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tone M.","family":"Norekv\u00e5l","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre on Patient-Reported Outcomes, Department of Research and Development, Haukeland University Hospital, Postboks 1400, N-5021 Bergen, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Health and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, N-5063 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marjolein M.","family":"Iversen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre on Patient-Reported Outcomes, Department of Research and Development, Haukeland University Hospital, Postboks 1400, N-5021 Bergen, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Health and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, N-5063 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1728-8966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed A.","family":"Mamun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHINTA Research Bangladesh, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, University of South Asia, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Department of Public Health, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh"},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Informatics, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8880-6524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark D.","family":"Griffiths","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting-I","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung 82445, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amir H.","family":"Pakpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention of Non-Communicable, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin 3419759811, Iran"},{"name":"Department of Nursing, School of Health and Welfare, J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping University, 551 11 J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, May 27). Worldometer COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic American Library Association (ALA). Available online: https:\/\/www.worldometers.info\/coronavirus\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-021-00639-z","article-title":"Infectious disease in an era of global change","volume":"20","author":"Baker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"United Nations (2021, March 21). Global Cooperation Must Adapt to Meet Biggest Threat since Second World War, Secretary-General Says on International Day, as COVID-19 Transcends Borders. Secretary General. SG\/SM\/20058. 23 April 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/press\/en\/2020\/sgsm20058.doc.htm."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamda.2020.05.045","article-title":"The effect of age on mortality in patients with COVID-19: A meta-analysis with 611,583 subjects","volume":"21","author":"Bonanad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740333","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.740333","article-title":"Comparing fear of COVID-19 and preventive COVID-19 infection behaviors between Iranian and Taiwanese older people: Early reaction may be a key","volume":"9","author":"Pakpour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.5893","article-title":"Understanding and addressing sources of anxiety among health care professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"323","author":"Shanafelt","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S333226","article-title":"COVID-19-related variables and its association with anxiety and suicidal ideation: Differences between international and local university students in Taiwan","volume":"14","author":"Ahorsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_68_21","article-title":"Assessment of the anxiety level and trust in information resources among iranian health-care workers during the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"4","author":"Hasannia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_54_21","article-title":"Evaluation of perceived social stigma and burnout, among health-care workers working in COVID-19 designated hospital of India: A cross-sectional study","volume":"4","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24487","DOI":"10.2196\/24487","article-title":"Anxiety and suicidal thoughts during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-country comparison among Indonesian, Taiwanese, and Thai university students","volume":"22","author":"Pramukti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_74_21","article-title":"Social-distancing compliance among pedestrians in Ahvaz, South-West Iran during the Covid-19 pandemic","volume":"4","author":"Shirali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, P.C., Hung, C.H., Kuo, Y.J., Chen, Y.P., Ahorsu, D.K., Yen, C.F., Lin, C.Y., Griffiths, M.D., and Pakpour, A.H. (2021). Expanding Protection Motivation Theory to explain willingness of COVID-19 vaccination uptake among Taiwanese university students. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9091046"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2022.2011227","article-title":"Examining the validity of the Drivers of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale using Rasch analysis","volume":"21","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_100_21","article-title":"Coronavirus disease-19 vaccine inequity and gross domestic product","volume":"4","author":"Alimoradi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2021.06.044","article-title":"Adapting the Motors of Influenza Vaccination Acceptance Scale into the Motors of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale: Psychometric evaluation among mainland Chinese university students","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3413","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1933687","article-title":"Extended theory of planned behavior in explaining the intention to COVID-19 vaccination uptake among mainland Chinese university students: An online survey study","volume":"17","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeh, Y.C., Chen, I.H., Ahorsu, D.K., Ko, N.Y., Chen, K.L., Li, P.C., Yen, C.F., Lin, C.Y., Griffiths, M.D., and Pakpour, A.H. (2021). Measurement invariance of the Drivers of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale: Comparison between Taiwanese and mainland Chinese-speaking populations. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9030297"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4103\/SHB.SHB_11_20","article-title":"Social reaction toward the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19)","volume":"3","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_32_21","article-title":"The psychological impact of COVID-19 on health-care workers in African Countries: A systematic review","volume":"4","author":"Olashore","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_5_21","article-title":"Psychological consequences and coping strategies of patients undergoing treatment for COVID-19 at a tertiary care hospital: A qualitative study","volume":"4","author":"Patil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30195-X","article-title":"Real estimates of mortality following COVID-19 infection","volume":"20","author":"Baud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertsimas, D., Lukin, G., Mingardi, L., Nohadani, O., Orfanoudaki, A., Stellato, B., Wiberg, H., Gonzalez-Garcia, S., Parra-Calder\u00f3n, C.L., and Robinson, K. (2020). Hellenic COVID-19 Study Group (2020). COVID-19 mortality risk assessment: An international multi-center study. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.07.20148304"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6929","DOI":"10.1039\/D1SC01203G","article-title":"Prediction and mitigation of mutation threats to COVID-19 vaccines and antibody therapies","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.144390","article-title":"Temperature dependence of COVID-19 transmission","volume":"763","author":"Notari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1892","DOI":"10.1002\/nop2.855","article-title":"Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) across countries: Measurement invariance issues","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nurs. Open"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_24_21","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19-related fear and anxiety on job attributes: A systematic review","volume":"4","author":"Rajabimajd","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_9_21","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2-associated perceived stress and anxiety among indian medical students: A cross-sectional study","volume":"4","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Soc. Health Behav."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00307-y","article-title":"COVID-19-related suicides in Bangladesh due to lockdown and economic factors: Case study evidence from media reports","volume":"19","author":"Bhuiyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.invent.2020.100345","article-title":"Investigating mediated effects of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 misunderstanding in the association between problematic social media use and distress\/insomnia","volume":"21","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Interv."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100213","DOI":"10.1136\/gpsych-2020-100213","article-title":"A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: Implications and policy recommendations","volume":"33","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2020.102232","article-title":"Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales","volume":"72","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gochman, D.S. (1997). Protection motivation theory. Handbook of Health Behavior Research 1: Personal and Social Determinants, Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-1760-7"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2020.105294","article-title":"COVID-19 and Conflict","volume":"140","author":"Bloem","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1080\/15564886.2020.1813856","article-title":"Fears of COVID-19 contagion and the Italian prison system response","volume":"15","author":"Pattavina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vict. Offenders"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1007\/s10460-020-10081-1","article-title":"COVID-19 and disruptions to food systems","volume":"37","author":"Benton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Hum. Values"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620934692","article-title":"A bioweapon or a hoax? The link between distinct conspiracy beliefs about the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak and pandemic behavior","volume":"11","author":"Imhoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.32872\/spb.4315","article-title":"Acceptance and adoption of protective measures during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of trust in politics and trust in science","volume":"15","author":"Dohle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13548506.2020.1772988","article-title":"Modeling compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines: The critical role of trust in science","volume":"26","author":"Plohl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahorsu, D.K., Lin, C.Y., Imani, V., Saffari, M., Griffiths, M.D., and Pakpour, A.H. (2020). The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1037\/t78404-000"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, I.H., Chen, C.Y., Zhao, K.Y., Gamble, J.H., Lin, C.Y., Griffiths, M.D., and Pakpour, A.H. (2022). Psychometric evaluation of Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) among Chinese primary and middle schoolteachers, and their students. Curr. Psychol., 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-021-02471-3"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0001102","article-title":"The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Its structure and measurement invariance across 48 countries","volume":"34","author":"Sawicki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, I., Tahir, M.J., Ali, S., Waseem, R., Griffiths, M.D., Mamun, M.A., Lin, C.Y., and Pakpour, A.H. (2021). COVID-19 fear among Pakistanis: Psychometric evaluation of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale using Item response theory and confirmatory factor analysis. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-021-00656-2"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2219","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00316-x","article-title":"Psychometric evaluation of the Arabic version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale","volume":"19","author":"Alyami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00415-9","article-title":"Adaptation and validation of the Brazilian version of the fear of COVID-19 scale","volume":"20","author":"Cavalheiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00361-6","article-title":"Psychometric testing of three COVID-19-related scales among people with mental illness","volume":"20","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mailliez, M., Griffiths, M.D., and Carre, A. (2021). Validation of the French version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale and its associations with depression, anxiety and differential emotions. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u201315.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-46616\/v1"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakashima, K., Asai, K., Kobayashi, D., Koiwa, K., Kamoshida, S., and Sakuraba, M. (2020). The Japanese version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Reliability, validity, and relation to coping behavior. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241958"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1017\/ipm.2021.5","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in Paraguayan population","volume":"38","author":"Barrios","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ir. J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113100","article-title":"Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Psychometric characteristics, reliability and validity in the Israeli population","volume":"289","author":"Bitan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iversen, M.M., Norekv\u00e5l, T.M., Oterhals, K., Fadnes, L.T., M\u00e6land, S., Pakpour, A.H., and Breivik, K. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Norwegian version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00454-2"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Midorikawa, H., Aiba, M., Lebowitz, A., Taguchi, T., Shiratori, Y., Ogawa, T., Takahashi, A., Takahashi, S., Nemoto, K., and Arai, T. (2021). Confirming validity of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in Japanese with a nationwide large-scale sample. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1037\/t79211-000"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00283-3","article-title":"COVID-19 fear in Eastern Europe: Validation of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale","volume":"19","author":"Reznik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"1231","article-title":"Assessment of fear of COVID-19 in older adults: Validation of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale","volume":"20","author":"Gallegos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00354-5","article-title":"Psychometric properties of a Spanish version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in general population of Lima, Peru","volume":"20","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00368-z","article-title":"Validation and psychometric properties of the Japanese version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale among adolescents","volume":"20","author":"Masuyama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1165821","article-title":"Network analysis in the social sciences","volume":"323","author":"Borgatti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-021-00055-w","article-title":"Network analysis of multivariate data in psychological science","volume":"1","author":"Borsboom","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Primers"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2021.104011","article-title":"Psychopathological networks: Theory, methods and practice","volume":"149","author":"Bringmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2014.07.003","article-title":"State of the aRt personality research: A tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R","volume":"54","author":"Costantini","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Res. Pers."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550617709827","article-title":"Network analysis on attitudes: A brief tutorial","volume":"8","author":"Dalege","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1177\/0033294120942116","article-title":"Network structures of symptoms from the Zung Depression Scale","volume":"124","author":"Briganti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1007\/s12671-021-01704-7","article-title":"A network analysis of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)","volume":"12","author":"Lecuona","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mindfulness"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.107086","article-title":"A network analysis approach to the relationship between fear of missing out (FoMO), smartphone addiction, and social networking site use among a sample of Chinese university students","volume":"128","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2017.11.003","article-title":"A network of dark personality traits: What lies at the heart of darkness?","volume":"73","author":"Marcus","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Res. Pers."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-081219-092850","article-title":"Network analysis of psychopathology: Controversies and challenges","volume":"17","author":"McMally","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1993689","article-title":"The mediational role of trust in the healthcare system in the association between generalized trust and willingness to get COVID-19 vaccination in Iran","volume":"18","author":"Ahorsu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"179","article-title":"Between lockdown and calm down. Comparing the COVID-19 responses of Norway and Sweden","volume":"48","author":"Askim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Local Gov. Stud."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1186\/s12955-021-01837-2","article-title":"Quality of life and fear of COVID-19 in 2600 baccalaureate nursing students at five universities: A cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Beisland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Qual. Life Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakib, N., Bhuiyan, A., Hossain, S., Al Mamun, F., Hosen, I., Abdullah, A.H., Sarker, M.A., Mohiuddin, M.S., Rayhan, I., and Hossain, M. (2020). Psychometric validation of the Bangla Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Confirmatory factor Analysis and Rasch analysis. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict., 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00289-x"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0862-1","article-title":"Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper","volume":"50","author":"Epskamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000167","article-title":"A tutorial on regularized partial correlation networks","volume":"23","author":"Epskamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mullarkey, M.C., Stewart, R.A., Wells, T.T., Shumake, J., and Beevers, C.G. (2018). Self-dislike and sadness are central symptoms of depression in college students: A network analysis. PsyArXiv.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/fujmb"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golino, H., and Epskamp, S. (2017). Exploratory graph analysis: A new approach for estimating the number of dimensions in psychological research. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0174035"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000255","article-title":"Investigating the performance of exploratory graph analysis and traditional techniques to identify the number of latent factors: A simulation and tutorial","volume":"25","author":"Golino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2020.1779642","article-title":"Entropy fit index: New fit measures for assessing the structure and dimensionality of multiple latent variables","volume":"56","author":"Golino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Multivar. Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000446","article-title":"What do centrality measures measure in psychological networks?","volume":"128","author":"Bringmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2019.1614898","article-title":"Bridge centrality: A network approach to understanding comorbidity","volume":"56","author":"Jones","year":"2021","journal-title":"Multivar. Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Costantini, G., Epskamp, S., and Costantini, M.G. (2021, March 21). Package \u201cEstimateGroupNetwork\u201d (0.3.1). Available online: https:\/\/cloud.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/EstimateGroupNetwork\/EstimateGroupNetwork.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702617745092","article-title":"Replicability and Generalizability of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Networks: A Cross-Cultural Multisite Study of PTSD Symptoms in Four Trauma Patient Samples","volume":"6","author":"Fried","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2021, March 21). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, Available online: http:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Rewelle, W. (2021, March 21). psych: Procedures for Personality and Psychological Research, Available online: http:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/package=psych."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Haslbeck, J.M.B., and Waldorp, L.J. (2015). mgm: Estimating time-varying mixed graphical models in high-dimensional data. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Jones, P., and Networktools: Tools for Identifying Important Nodes in Networks (2021, March 21). R Package, Version 1.2.3. Available online: https:\/\/cran-r-project.org\/web\/packages\/networktools\/."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golino, H., and Christensen, A. (2019). EGAnet: Exploratory Graph Analysis\u2014A Framework for Estimating the Number of Dimensions in Multivariate Data Using Network Psychometrics, EGAnet. Available online: https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/EGAnet\/index.html.","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.EGAnet"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i02","article-title":"lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling","volume":"48","author":"Rosseel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2020.113127","article-title":"Assessing the psychological response to the COVID-19: A response to Bitan et al. \u201cFear of COVID-19 scale: Psychometric characteristics, reliability and validity in the Israeli population\u201d","volume":"290","author":"Pakpour","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"818","article-title":"Is the bifactor model a better model or is it just better at modeling implausible responses? Application of iteratively reweighted least squares to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale","volume":"51","author":"Reise","year":"2016","journal-title":"Multivar. Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cori, L., Curzio, O., Adorni, F., Prinelli, F., Noale, M., Trevisan, C., Fortunato, L., Giacomelli, A., and Bianchi, F. (2021). Fear of COVID-19 for Individuals and Family Members: Indications from the National Cross-Sectional Study of the EPICOVID19 Web-Based Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18063248"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2021.101648","article-title":"YouTube\u2019s growth in use among children 0\u20135 during COVID19: The Occidental European case","volume":"66","year":"2021","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elboj-Saso, C., Cort\u00e9s-Pascual, A., \u00cd\u00f1iguez-Berrozpe, T., Lozano-Blasco, R., and Qu\u00edlez-Robres, A. (2021). Emotional and Educational Accompaniment through Dialogic Literary Gatherings: A Volunteer Project for Families Who Suffer Digital Exclusion in the Context of COVID-19. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13031206"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jimenez, M., Abad, F.J., Garcia-Garzon, E., Golino, H., Christensen, A.P., Garrido, L.E., and Dimensionality assessment in generalized bi-factor structures: A network psychometrics approach (2022, May 27). PsyArXiv 2022. Available online: https:\/\/psyarxiv.com\/2ujdk\/.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/2ujdk"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"236","article-title":"Program FACTOR at 10: Origins, development and future directions","volume":"29","author":"Ferrando","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01742","article-title":"Visualizing psychological networks: A tutorial in R","volume":"9","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/11\/6824\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:23:58Z","timestamp":1760138638000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/11\/6824"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,2]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19116824"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19116824","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,2]]}}}