{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T06:33:12Z","timestamp":1792477992652,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,9]],"date-time":"2022-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654732800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sports are yielding a wealth of benefits for cardiovascular fitness, for psychological resilience, and for cognition. The amount of practice, and the type of practiced sports, are of importance to obtain these benefits and avoid any side effects. This is especially important in the context of contact sports. Contact sports are not only known to be a major source of injuries of the musculoskeletal apparatus, they are also significantly related to concussion and sub-concussion. Sub-concussive head impacts accumulate throughout the active sports career, and thus can cause measurable deficits and changes to brain health. Emerging research in the area of cumulative sub-concussions in contact sports has revealed several associated markers of brain injury. For example, recent studies discovered that repeated headers in soccer not only cause measurable signs of cognitive impairment but are also related to a prolonged cortical silent period in transcranial magnetic stimulation measurements. Other cognitive and neuroimaging biomarkers are also pointing to adverse effects of heading. A range of fluid biomarkers completes the picture of cumulating effects of sub-concussive impacts. Those accumulating effects can cause significant cognitive impairment later in life of active contact sportswomen and men. The aim of this review is to highlight the current scientific evidence on the effects of repeated sub-concussive head impacts on contact sports athletes\u2019 brains, identify the areas in need of further investigation, highlight the potential of advanced neuroscientific methods, and comment on the steps governing bodies have made to address this issue. We conclude that there are indeed neural and biofluid markers that can help better understand the effects of repeated sub-concussive head impacts and that some aspects of contact sports should be redefined, especially in situations where sub-concussive impacts and concussions can be minimized.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,10]],"date-time":"2022-06-10T02:25:33Z","timestamp":1654827933000},"page":"7098","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Repeated Sub-Concussive Impacts and the Negative Effects of Contact Sports on Cognition and Brain Integrity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Michail","family":"Ntikas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ferdinand","family":"Binkofski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division for Clinical Cognitive Sciences, Department of Neurology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, 52062 Aachen, Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-4), Forschungszentrum J\u00fclich, 52425 J\u00fclich, Germany"},{"name":"JARA-Brain-Translational Medicine, 52062 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N. Jon","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-4), Forschungszentrum J\u00fclich, 52425 J\u00fclich, Germany"},{"name":"JARA-Brain-Translational Medicine, 52062 Aachen, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magdalena","family":"Ietswaart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30279-X","article-title":"The Chronic and Evolving Neurological Consequences of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"16","author":"Wilson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2013.07.022","article-title":"Incidence of Sport-Related Traumatic Brain Injury and Risk Factors of Severity: A Population-Based Epidemiologic Study","volume":"23","author":"Selassie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. 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