{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T19:21:23Z","timestamp":1790623283397,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":192,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]],"date-time":"2022-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"United States National Institute on Drug Abuse","award":["P30 DA011041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 DA011041"]}]},{"name":"United States National Institute on Drug Abuse","award":["K01DA053159"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K01DA053159"]}]},{"name":"United States National Institute on Drug Abuse","award":["UH3DA044829"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UH3DA044829"]}]},{"name":"United States National Institute on Drug Abuse","award":["R01DA041501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DA041501"]}]},{"name":"United States National Institute on Drug Abuse","award":["R01DA041298"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DA041298"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Structural racism is increasingly recognized as a key driver of health inequities and other adverse outcomes. This paper focuses on structural racism as an \u201cupstream\u201d institutionalized process, how it creates health inequities and how structural racism persists in spite of generations of efforts to end it. So far, \u201cdownstream\u201d efforts to reduce these health inequities have had little success in eliminating them. Here, we attempt to increase public health awareness of structural racism and its institutionalization and sociopolitical supports so that research and action can address them. This paper presents both a theoretic and an analytic approach to how structural racism contributes to disproportionate rates of HIV\/AIDS and related diseases among oppressed populations. We first discuss differences in disease and health outcomes among people who use drugs (PWUD) and other groups at risk for HIV from different racial and ethnic populations. The paper then briefly analyzes the history of racism; how racial oppression, class, gender and other intersectional divisions interact to create health inequities; and how structural racism is institutionalized in ways that contribute to disease disparities among people who use drugs and other people. It examines the processes, institutions and other structures that reinforce structural racism, and how these, combined with processes that normalize racism, serve as barriers to efforts to counter and dismantle the structural racism that Black, indigenous and Latinx people have confronted for centuries. Finally, we discuss the implications of this analysis for public health research and action to undo racism and to enhance the health of populations who have suffered lifetimes of racial\/ethnic oppression, with a focus on HIV\/AIDS outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127453","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]],"date-time":"2022-06-17T11:45:44Z","timestamp":1655466344000},"page":"7453","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Toward a Theory of the Underpinnings and Vulnerabilities of Structural Racism: Looking Upstream from Disease Inequities among People Who Use Drugs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2083-1226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel R.","family":"Friedman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3071-5966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leslie D.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Community Health Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago School of Public Health, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9426-2869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashly E.","family":"Jordan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Drug Use and HIV\/HCV Research, New York, NY 10003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzan","family":"Walters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, New York University School of Global Public Health, New York, NY 10003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5674-025X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David C.","family":"Perlman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Mateu-Gelabert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy, City University of New York, New York, NY 10027, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgios K.","family":"Nikolopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, University of Cyprus, 2029 Aglantzia, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria R.","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0495-7016","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Peprah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, New York University School of Global Public Health, New York, NY 10003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jerel","family":"Ezell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Africana Studies and Research Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000634","article-title":"Syndemic theory, structural violence and HIV among African\u2013Americans","volume":"15","author":"Godley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2004.0043","article-title":"Structural violence and racial disparity in HIV transmission","volume":"15","author":"Lane","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Taylor, K.-Y. (2016). From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, Haymarket Books."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bloom, J.M. (2019). Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement, Indiana University Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvktrxqj"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2012.04027.x","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in HIV infection among people who inject drugs: An international systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"107","author":"Bramson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60899-X","article-title":"Comparisons of disparities and risks of HIV infection in black and other men who have sex with men in Canada, UK, and USA: A meta-analysis","volume":"380","author":"Millett","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Sabin, K. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"55","article-title":"Racial aspects of the AIDS epidemic","volume":"11","author":"Friedman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Calif. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1057\/s41276-018-0137-8","article-title":"Latinx thoughts: Latinidad with an X","volume":"16","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lat. Stud."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2021.306238","article-title":"To Latinx or Not to Latinx: A Question of Gender Inclusivity Versus Gender Neutrality","volume":"111","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.18865\/ed.31.S1.301","article-title":"Looking back to leap forward: A framework for operationalizing the structural racism construct in minority health research","volume":"31","author":"Dennis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kaiser Family Foundation (2022, February 28). HIV Diagnoses, Adults and Adolescents, by Race\/Ethnicity. Available online: https:\/\/www.kff.org\/hivaids\/state-indicator\/hiv-diagnoses-adults-and-adolescents-by-raceethnicity\/?currentTimeframe=0&selectedRows=%7B%22wrapups%22:%7B%22united-states%22:%7B%7D%7D%7D&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Location%22,%22sort%22:%22asc%22%7D."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022, February 28). HIV Surveillance Report; Volume 31, Available online: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/library\/reports\/hiv-surveillance.html."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Trends in tuberculosis\u2013United States, 2010. MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 60, 333\u2013337."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.79.4.467","article-title":"Race and the prevalence of syphilis seroreactivity in the United States population: A national sero-epidemiologic study","volume":"79","author":"Hahn","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nwh.2022.01.006","article-title":"A Systematic Review Exploring Racial Disparities, Social Determinants of Health, and Sexually Transmitted Infections in Black Women","volume":"26","author":"Cohn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nurs. Women's Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2819372","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/2819372","article-title":"Socioeconomic and racial\/ethnic disparities in cancer mortality, incidence, and survival in the United States, 1950\u20132014: Over six decades of changing patterns and widening inequalities","volume":"2017","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/30.1.111","article-title":"Sick genes, sick individuals or sick populations with chronic disease? The emergence of diabetes and high blood pressure in African-origin populations","volume":"30","author":"Cruickshank","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2190\/8QMH-4FAB-XAWP-VU95","article-title":"The widening gap in death rates among income groups in the United States from 1967 to 1986","volume":"30","author":"Schalick","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/jtg023","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in overdose mortality trends in New York City, 1990\u20131998","volume":"80","author":"Galea","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Urban Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16793","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1821204116","article-title":"Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race\u2013ethnicity, and sex","volume":"116","author":"Edwards","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e002913","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2020-002913","article-title":"Ethnic and racial disparities in COVID-19-related deaths: Counting the trees, hiding the forest","volume":"5","author":"Yaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson, M., Shamsunder, M., Brazier, E., Mantravadi, M., Rane, M.S., Westmoreland, D.A., Parcesepe, A., Zimba, R., Maroko, A.R., and Kulkarni, S. (2022). Racial\/ethnic disparities in exposure to COVID-19, susceptibility to COVID-19 and access to health care-findings from a US national cohort. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.01.11.22269101"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bassett, M.T., Chen, J.T., and Krieger, N. (2020). Variation in racial\/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality by age in the United States: A cross-sectional study. PLoS Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003402"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Washington, H.A. (2006). Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present, Doubleday Books."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMms2025396","article-title":"How Structural Racism Works\u2014Racist Policies as a Root Cause of U.S. Racial Health Inequities","volume":"384","author":"Bailey","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krieger, N. (2021). Ecosocial Theory, Embodied Truths, and the People's Health, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780197510728.002.0001"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krieger, N. (2016). Embodying Inequality: Epidemiologic Perspectives, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315224671"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2004.024562","article-title":"Embodiment: A conceptual glossary for epidemiology","volume":"59","author":"Krieger","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Hall, S. (1980). Race, Articulation and Societies Structured in Dominance. Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/S1047-2797(97)00051-3","article-title":"Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions","volume":"7","author":"Williams","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3366\/olr.1991.009","article-title":"\u2018Race\u2019, time and the revision of modernity","volume":"13","author":"Bhabha","year":"1991","journal-title":"Oxf. Lit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022278X00022801","article-title":"Underdevelopment and dependence in Black Africa\u2014Origins and contemporary forms","volume":"10","author":"Amin","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Mod. Afr. Stud."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Olusoga, D. (2022, March 22). The Guardian. The Roots of European Racism Lie in the Slave Trade Colonialism and Edward Long. Available online: https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/commentisfree\/2015\/sep\/08\/european-racism-africa-slavery."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Dionne, E.J. (2022, March 01). The New York Times. Pope Apologizes to Africans for Slavery. Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/1985\/08\/14\/world\/pope-apologizes-to-africans-for-slavery.html."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009874203400","article-title":"Who gives foreign aid to whom and why?","volume":"5","author":"Alesina","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Econ. Growth"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rylko-Bauer, B., and Farmer, P. (2016). Structural violence, poverty, and social suffering. The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199914050.013.4"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1525\/nad.2003.6.1.1","article-title":"Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor","volume":"6","author":"Farmer","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Am. Dialogue"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, B. (2020). Colonial Legacies in International Aid: Policy Priorities and Actor Constellations. From Colonialism to International Aid, Palgrave Macmillan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-38200-1_7"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Farmer, P. (2006). The uses of Haiti, Common Courage Press."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Mintz, S.W. (1986). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History, Penguin."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"James, C.L.R. (1963). The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L\u2019ouverture and the Santo Domingo Revolution, Vintage."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Aston, T.H., and Philpin, C. (1987). The Brenner Debate, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Allen, T.W., and Eltis, D. (2012). The invention of the white race. Volume I: Racial Oppression & Social Control, Verso."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.22581","article-title":"The stigma system: How sociopolitical domination, scapegoating, and stigma shape public health","volume":"50","author":"Friedman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ignatiev, N. (2012). How the Irish Became White, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203473009"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Zweigenhaft, R.L. (2022, February 28). Who Rules America?. Diversity Among Fortune 500 CEOs from 2000 to 2020: White Women, Hi-Tech South Asians, and Economically Privileged Multilingual Immigrants from Around the World., Available online: https:\/\/whorulesamerica.ucsc.edu\/power\/diversity_update_2020.html#:~:text=Moreover%2C%20since%20most%20of%20the,%2C%20and%203.4%25%20are%20Latinx."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Sacks, K. (1988). Women, Work, and Organizing at Duke Medical Center, University of Illinois Press."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2022, February 28). The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights. The Abysmal State of Media Ownership Diversity in America. Available online: https:\/\/civilrights.org\/blog\/the-abysmal-state-of-media-ownership-diversity-in-america\/."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Harvard University (2022, February 28). The Future of Media Project. Available online: https:\/\/projects.iq.harvard.edu\/futureofmedia\/index-us-mainstream-media-ownership."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1086\/682162","article-title":"The Cost of Color: Skin Color, Discrimination, and Health among African-Americans","volume":"121","author":"Monk","year":"2015","journal-title":"AJS. Am. J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Goldfield, M. (1997). The Color of Politics: Race, Class, and the Mainsprings of American Politics, New Press."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omi, M., and Winant, H. (2013). Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203076804"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Moody, K. (2014). In Solidarity: Essays on Working-Class Organization in the United States, Haymarket."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1163\/146544609X12537556703034","article-title":"One symptom of originality: Race and the management of labour in the history of the United States","volume":"17","author":"Roediger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hist. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanf. Law Rev., 1241\u20131299.","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Bakan, A.B., and Dua, E. (2014). Race and the management of labour. Notes on Theorizing Anti-Racism: Linkages in Marxism and Critical Race Theories, University of Toronto Press."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woeste, V.S. (2012). Henry Ford's War on Jews and the Legal Battle Against Hate Speech, Stanford University Press.","DOI":"10.11126\/stanford\/9780804772341.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, F.W. (2004). Scientific Management, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203498569"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Montgomery, D. (1980). Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S69","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3181fbbdf9","article-title":"Challenges of a hidden epidemic: HIV prevention among women in the United States","volume":"55","author":"Hodder","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anievas, A., and Ni\u015fanc\u0131o\u011flu, K. (2015). How the West Came to Rule: The Geopolitical Origins of Capitalism, Pluto Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt183pb6f"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drucker, P. (2015). Warped: Gay Normality and Queer Anti-Capitalism, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004288119"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Federici, S. (2004). Caliban and the Witch, Autonomedia."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Crenshaw, K.W. (2017). On Intersectionality: Essential Writings, The New Press."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Boyer, R., Boyer, R.O., and Morais, H.M. (1975). Labor's Untold Story, United Electrical Radio."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Glaberman, M. (1976). The Struggle against the No-Strike Pledge in the UAW during World War II, Union Institute and University."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Denby, C. (1989). Indignant Heart: A Black Worker's Journal, Wayne State University Press."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jay, M., and Conklin, P. (2020). A people\u2019s History of Detroit, Duke University Press.","DOI":"10.1215\/9781478009351"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2020.00001","article-title":"Silenced Knowing: An Intersectional Framework for Exploring Black Women\u2019s Health and Diasporic Identities","volume":"5","author":"Serrant","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2015.1007669","article-title":"War on drugs policing and police brutality","volume":"50","author":"Cooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000001294","article-title":"Structural vulnerability: Operationalizing the concept to address health disparities in clinical care","volume":"92","author":"Bourgois","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acad. Med. J. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200205010-00013","article-title":"Risk networks and racial\/ethnic differences in the prevalence of HIV infection among injection drug users","volume":"30","author":"Kottiri","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2019.112384","article-title":"The intersectional risk environment of people who use drugs","volume":"234","author":"Collins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Friedman, S.R., Curtis, R., Neaigus, A., Jose, B., and Des Jarlais, D.C. (2006). Social Networks, Drug Injectors\u2019 Lives, and HIV\/AIDS, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehmann, J. (2013). Theories of Ideology: The Powers of Alienation and Subjection, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004252318"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"New York Times (2022, February 28). Thousands Mourn Slain N.Y.P.D. Officer Who Was \u2018Full of Dreams\u2019, Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/live\/2022\/02\/02\/nyregion\/wilbert-mora-funeral-nypd."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States, Beacon Press."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, M.M. (2018). The Injustice never Leaves You: Anti-Mexican Violence in Texas, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674989405"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zinn, H. (2015). A People\u2019s History of the United States: 1492-Present, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315656519"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Rosado, A., Cohn-Postar, G., and Eisen, M. (2022, February 28). With the Zinn Education Project Team. Available online: https:\/\/www.teachreconstructionreport.org\/."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Ardia, D., Ringel, E., Smith Ekstrand, V., and Fox, A. (2022, February 28). Center for Information, Technology, and Public Life. Addressing the Decline of Local News, Rise of Platforms, and Spread of Mis-and Disinformation Online. Available online: https:\/\/citap.unc.edu\/local-news-platforms-mis-disinformation\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Pew Research Center (2022, February 28). The Futute of Truth and Misinformation Online. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2017\/10\/19\/the-future-of-truth-and-misinformation-online\/."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.osnem.2020.100104","article-title":"An exploratory study of covid-19 misinformation on twitter","volume":"22","author":"Shahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Online Soc. Netw. Media"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2017.1293130","article-title":"Platformed racism: The mediation and circulation of an Australian race-based controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube","volume":"20","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inf. Commun. Soc."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2776","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-020-02925-y","article-title":"Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: Lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism","volume":"24","author":"Jaiswal","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIDS Behav."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4787","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06930-7","article-title":"The spread of low-credibility content by social bots","volume":"9","author":"Shao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/19331681.2018.1448735","article-title":"Algorithms, bots, and political communication in the US 2016 election: The challenge of automated political communication for election law and administration","volume":"15","author":"Howard","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol. Politics"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Rothstein, R. (2017). The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America, Liveright Publishing."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Perlman, D.C., and Jordan, A.E. (2022, February 28). Counter Punch. Why We Should Abolish the Senate. Available online: https:\/\/www.counterpunch.org\/2021\/06\/08\/why-we-should-abolish-the-senate\/."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Kendi, I.X. (2016). Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, Hachette UK."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Bullard, S. (1998). The Ku Klux Klan: A History of Racism & Violence, Diane Publishing."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"30","article-title":"Moving on up? Neighborhood status and racism-related distress among Black Americans","volume":"1","author":"DeAngelis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Forces"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.24908\/ss.v17i1\/2.12927","article-title":"Building the digitally gated community: The case of Nextdoor","volume":"17","author":"Kurwa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surveill. Soc."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Brookings (2022, February 28). What Border Vigilant Groups Taught US Right Wing Armed Groups. Available online: https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/articles\/what-border-vigilantes-taught-us-right-wing-armed-groups\/."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caren, N., Jowers, K., and Gaby, S. (2012). A social movement online community: Stormfront and the white nationalist movement. Media, Movements, and Political Change, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.","DOI":"10.1108\/S0163-786X(2012)0000033010"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Daniels, J. (2017). Twitter and White Supremacy: A Love Story, City University of New York (CUNY)."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakamura, L., Stiverson, H., and Lindsey, K. (2021). Racist Zoombombing, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003157328"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Miliband, R. (2011). Marxism and Politics, Aakar Books."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Miliband, R. (1969). The State in Capitalist Society, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Domhoff, G.W. (2014). Who Rules America?: The Triumph of the Corporate rich, McGraw-Hill Education."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mizruchi, M.S. (2013). The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite, Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674075368"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Useem, M. (1984). The Inner Circle, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1111\/cccr.12098","article-title":"The politics of racism: Constructions of African immigrants in China on ChinaSMACK","volume":"8","author":"Pfafman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Commun. Cult. Crit."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0739986313511306","article-title":"Skin-Color Prejudice and Within-Group Racial Discrimination","volume":"36","author":"Adames","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hisp. J. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1037\/cdp0000448","article-title":"Internalized model minority myth among Asian Americans: Links to anti-Black attitudes and opposition to affirmative action","volume":"27","author":"Yi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cult. Divers. Ethn. Minority Psychol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yellow Horse, A.J., Kuo, K., Seaton, E.K., and Vargas, E.D. (2021). Asian Americans\u2019 Indifference to Black Lives Matter: The Role of Nativity, Belonging and Acknowledgment of Anti-Black Racism. Soc. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci10050168"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1080\/09518398.2017.1312613","article-title":"Anti-Black Latino racism in an era of Trumpismo","volume":"30","author":"Haywood","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Stud. Educ."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"413","article-title":"Colorism Demonstrates Dampened Effects Among Young Black Men Who Have Sex with Men in Chicago","volume":"111","author":"Alon","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Natl. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Baum, D. (2019, June 17). Legalize it all. Harper\u2019s Magazine. Available online: https:\/\/harpers.org\/archive\/2016\/04\/legalize-it-all\/."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.2307\/800823","article-title":"Dynamics of black mobilization against AIDS in New York City","volume":"36","author":"Quimby","year":"1989","journal-title":"Soc. Probl."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-4331","article-title":"Feasibility of separate rooms for home isolation and quarantine for COVID-19 in the United States","volume":"174","author":"Sehgal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.14485\/HBPR.7.2.9","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 on persons in correctional facilities\u2013a commentary","volume":"7","author":"Seal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Behav. Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.14485\/HBPR.7.5.11","article-title":"COVID-19 and People Who Use Drugs\u2014A Commentary","volume":"7","author":"Walters","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Behav. Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.12.031","article-title":"Asymptomatic patients as a source of transmission of COVID-19 in homeless shelters","volume":"103","author":"Ralli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-021-01173-z","article-title":"Risk of Poor Outcomes with COVID-19 Among U.S. Detained Immigrants: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"23","author":"Patler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minority Health"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e245","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(20)30081-5","article-title":"COVID-19 and immigration detention in the USA: Time to act","volume":"5","author":"Keller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2134147","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.34147","article-title":"Disparities in COVID-19 Outcomes by Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Magesh","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-021-00963-3","article-title":"Inequities in Employment by Race, Ethnicity, and Sector During COVID-19","volume":"9","author":"Gemelas","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2021.05.015","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in SARS-CoV-2 testing and COVID-19 outcomes in a Medicaid managed care cohort","volume":"61","author":"Jacobson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2130479","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.30479","article-title":"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Rates of COVID-19\u2013Associated Hospitalization, Intensive Care Unit Admission, and In-Hospital Death in the United States From March 2020 to February 2021","volume":"4","author":"Acosta","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7015e2","article-title":"Trends in racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19 hospitalizations, by region\u2014United States, March\u2013December 2020","volume":"70","author":"Romano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2012.300865","article-title":"Neighborhood disparities in access to healthy foods and their effects on environmental justice","volume":"102","author":"Hilmers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1616","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.115626","article-title":"The context for choice: Health implications of targeted food and beverage marketing to African Americans","volume":"98","author":"Grier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1089\/088922200750005985","article-title":"Apparent founder effect during the early years of the San Francisco HIV type 1 epidemic (1978\u2013979)","volume":"16","author":"Foley","year":"2000","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, M.A., Nerurkar, V.R., Khoja, S., Khan, S., Yanagihara, R., Rehman, A., Kazmi, S.U., and Ali, S.H. (2010). Evidence for a \u201cFounder Effect\u201d among HIV-infected injection drug users (IDUs) in Pakistan. BMC Infect. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-10-7"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferdinandy, B., Mones, E., Vicsek, T., and M\u00fcller, V. (2015). HIV competition dynamics over sexual networks: First comer advantage conserves founder effects. PLoS Comput. Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1004093"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.2307\/3349999","article-title":"The AIDS epidemic among Blacks and Hispanics","volume":"65","author":"Friedman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Milbank Q."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2020.09.004","article-title":"Trajectories of and disparities in HIV prevalence among Black, white, and Hispanic\/Latino men who have sex with men in 86 large US metropolitan statistical areas, 1992\u20132013","volume":"54","author":"Williams","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1701447115","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology reveals the role of war in the spread of HIV in Ukraine","volume":"115","author":"Vasylyeva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"Friedman, S., Des Jarlais, D., Jose, B., Neaigus, A., and Goldstein, M. (1994). Seroprevalence, seroconversion, and the history of the HIV epidemic among drug injectors. HIV Epidemiol. Models Methods, 137\u2013150."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a117726","article-title":"Risk Factors for HIV Seroconversion Among Out of Treatment Drug Injectors in High and Low Prevalence Cities","volume":"142","author":"Freidman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1080\/10550887.2015.1059654","article-title":"Measuring Altruistic and Solidaristic Orientations Toward Others Among People Who Inject Drugs","volume":"34","author":"Friedman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Addict. Dis."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6547e1","article-title":"Vital signs: Trends in HIV diagnoses, risk behaviors, and prevention among persons who inject drugs\u2014United States","volume":"65","author":"Wejnert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(94)90301-8","article-title":"The relevance of drug injectors' social and risk networks for understanding and preventing HIV infection","volume":"38","author":"Neaigus","year":"1994","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.075747","article-title":"Sexual and Drug Behavior Patterns and HIV and STD Racial Disparities: The Need for New Directions","volume":"97","author":"Hallfors","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-199905000-00003","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: A network explanation","volume":"26","author":"Laumann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoff, L., Scheidell, J.D., Mazumdar, M., Feelemyer, J., Dyer, T.V., Turpin, R.E., Cleland, C.M., Caniglia, E.C., Remch, M., and Brewer, R. (2021). The associations of incarceration and depression with healthcare experiences and utilization among Black men who have sex with men in HPTN 061. AIDS Care, 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1080\/09540121.2021.1966695"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2016.09.004","article-title":"Structural inequalities drive late HIV diagnosis: The role of black racial concentration, income inequality, socioeconomic deprivation, and HIV testing","volume":"42","author":"Ransome","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"1","article-title":"Social determinants of late stage HIV diagnosis and its distributions among African Americans and Latinos: A critical literature review","volume":"8","author":"Chopel","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Health Disparities Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000000334","article-title":"Infrequent HIV testing and late HIV diagnosis are common among a cohort of Black men who have sex with men (BMSM) in six US cities","volume":"67","author":"Mannheimer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6647e1","article-title":"Vital Signs: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing and Diagnosis Delays\u2014United States","volume":"66","author":"Dailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.24.2.398","article-title":"The role of health insurance coverage in reducing racial\/ethnic disparities in health care","volume":"24","author":"Hoffman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s11113-016-9416-y","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in health insurance coverage: Dynamics of gaining and losing coverage over the life-course","volume":"36","author":"Sohn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Popul. Res. Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303155","article-title":"Effect of the Affordable Care Act on racial and ethnic disparities in health insurance coverage","volume":"106","author":"Buchmueller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.22.2.139","article-title":"Pathways to access: Health insurance, the health care delivery system, and racial\/ethnic disparities, 1996\u20131999","volume":"22","author":"Zuvekas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Brown, E.R., Ojeda, V.D., Wyn, R., and Levan, R. (2000). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Access to Health Insurance and Health Care, UCLA Center for Health Policy Research."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2010.0026","article-title":"Primary care: Current problems and proposed solutions","volume":"29","author":"Bodenheimer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1177\/1527154404263265","article-title":"Employment-Related Constraints: Determinants of Primary Health Care Access?","volume":"5","author":"Gleason","year":"2004","journal-title":"Policy Politics Nurs. Pract."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2015.04.001","article-title":"Exposing some important barriers to health care access in the rural USA","volume":"129","author":"Douthit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boulware, L.E., Cooper, L.A., Ratner, L.E., LaVeist, T.A., and Powe, N.R. (2016). Race and trust in the health care system. Public Health Rep., 118.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3549(04)50262-5"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.93.10.1713","article-title":"Patient\u2013physician relationships and racial disparities in the quality of health care","volume":"93","author":"Saha","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1089\/apc.2021.0070","article-title":"Prevalence of U = U Awareness and Its Association with Anticipated HIV Stigma Among Low-Income Heterosexually Active Black and Latino Adults in New York City, 2019","volume":"35","author":"Rivera","year":"2021","journal-title":"AIDS Patient Care STDs"},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"Du Bois, W.E.B. (1962). Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay Toward a History of the Part which Black Folk Playd in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy, 1860\u20131880, Russell & Russell."},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"Schwartz, M. (1988). Radical Protest and Social Structure: The Southern Farmers' Alliance and Cotton Tenancy, 1880\u20131890, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breilh, J. (2021). Critical Epidemiology and the People's Health, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780190492786.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeCuir-Gunby, J.T., Chapman, T., and Schutz, P.A. (2019). Understanding Critical Race Research Methods and Methodologies, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315100944"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561175","DOI":"10.1080\/16549716.2018.1561175","article-title":"Decolonising research methodologies: Lessons from a qualitative research project, Cape Town, South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Keikelame","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Health Action"},{"key":"ref_159","unstructured":"Smith, L.T. (2021). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, Bloomsbury Publishing."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073014-112305","article-title":"Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health?","volume":"41","author":"Phelan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-200306000-00003","article-title":"Racism and cardiovascular disease in African Americans","volume":"325","author":"Calvin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000724","article-title":"Ending the HIV epidemic for all, not just some: Structural racism as a fundamental but overlooked social-structural determinant of the US HIV epidemic","volume":"17","author":"Bowleg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2009.163899","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in self-reported racism and its association with cancer-related health behaviors","volume":"100","author":"Klassen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.24.8.1498","article-title":"Internalized racism is associated with glucose intolerance among Black Americans in the US Virgin Islands","volume":"24","author":"Tull","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1080\/08964289.2019.1585327","article-title":"Medical mistrust, racism, and delays in preventive health screening among African-American men","volume":"45","author":"Powell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2011.9","article-title":"Racism and hypertension: A review of the empirical evidence and implications for clinical practice","volume":"24","author":"Brondolo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_167","unstructured":"Burghardt, W.E., and Bois, D. (1979). Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860\u20131880, Atheneum."},{"key":"ref_168","unstructured":"Steinberg, S. (2001). The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America, Beacon Press."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.2307\/3042471","article-title":"The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy","volume":"31","author":"Steinberg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Afr. Am. Rev."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2008.140327","article-title":"Structural and social contexts of HIV risk among African Americans","volume":"99","author":"Friedman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_171","unstructured":"Phillips, T. (2022, February 28). The Gaurdian. Jair Bolsonaro\u2019s Racist Comment Sparks Outrage from Indigenous Groups. Available online: https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2020\/jan\/24\/jair-bolsonaro-racist-comment-sparks-outrage-indigenous-groups."},{"key":"ref_172","unstructured":"Krugman, P. (2022, February 28). The New York Times. Trump\u2019s Racist, Statist Suburban Dream. Racial Inequality Wasn\u2019t an Accident. It Was an Ugly Political Choice. Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/08\/13\/opinion\/trump-suburbs-racism.html."},{"key":"ref_173","unstructured":"Banks, J. (2022, February 28). The Nation. The Radical Capitalist Behind the Critical Race Theory Furor: How a Dark-Money Mogul Bankrolled an Astroturf Backlash. Available online: https:\/\/www.thenation.com\/article\/politics\/charles-koch-crt-backlash\/."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.13169\/islastudj.4.2.0161","article-title":"Reading Islamophobia in Hindutva: An Analysis of Narendra Modi\u2019s Political Discourse","volume":"4","author":"Waikar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Islamophobia Stud. J."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brazelton, B. (2021). On racial capitalism, structural change and the liquidation of Whiteness. Radic. Am., Available online: https:\/\/www.scienceopen.com\/hosted-document?doi=10.14324\/111.444.ra.2021.v6.1.006.","DOI":"10.14324\/111.444.ra.2021.v6.1.006"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s12111-021-09543-5","article-title":"A Historical Analysis of Racism Within the US Presidency: Implications for African Americans and the Political Process","volume":"25","author":"Clayton","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Afr. Am. Stud."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1080\/14701847.2021.1944030","article-title":"The Challenges for Anti-racists in Bolsonaro\u2019s Brazil","volume":"27","author":"Treece","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Iber. Lat. Am. Stud."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1080\/00064246.1973.11431345","article-title":"The racist use of the English language","volume":"5","author":"Burgest","year":"1973","journal-title":"Black Sch."},{"key":"ref_179","unstructured":"Moore, R.B. (1976). Racism in the English Language: A Lesson Plan and Study Essay, Racism and Sexism Resource Center for Educators."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2020.1783638","article-title":"Linguistic racism: Its negative effects and why we need to contest it","volume":"23","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2020.1793367","article-title":"Drug Overdose Deaths Among US Hispanics: Trends (2000\u20132017) and Recent Patterns","volume":"55","author":"Cano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2020.103079","article-title":"Drug overdose mortality among stateside Puerto Ricans: Evidence of a health disparity","volume":"90","author":"Cano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106625","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in US drug overdose mortality, 2017\u20132018","volume":"112","author":"Cano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhip.2021.100181","article-title":"Patterns of drug overdose deaths in Kuwait from 2014 to 2018","volume":"2","author":"Mahdi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Pract."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cano, M., and Gelp\u00ed-Acosta, C. (2021). Risk of Drug Overdose Mortality for Island-Born and US-Born Puerto Ricans, 2013\u20132019. J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities, 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-021-01077-6"},{"key":"ref_186","unstructured":"Greeley, A.M., and Sheatsley, P.B. (2017). Attitudes Toward Racial Integration, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_187","unstructured":"Kowal, J.F. (2015). The improbable victory of marriage equality. Leg. Change Lessons Am. Soc. Mov., 25\u201344."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1086\/268544","article-title":"Changes in white attitudes toward blacks: 1963\u20131977","volume":"43","author":"Condran","year":"1979","journal-title":"Public Opin. Q."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stetsenko, A. (2017). The Transformative Mind: Expanding Vygotsky's Approach to Development and Education, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9780511843044"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Smet, B. (2015). A Dialectical Pedagogy of Revolt: Gramsci, Vygotsky, and the Egyptian Revolution, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004262669"},{"key":"ref_191","unstructured":"Choudry, A. (2015). Learning Activism: The Intellectual Life of Contemporary Social Movements, University of Toronto Press."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167218757454","article-title":"Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes Changed During Black Lives Matter","volume":"44","author":"Sawyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/12\/7453\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:34:03Z","timestamp":1760139243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/12\/7453"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]},"references-count":192,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19127453"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19127453","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]}}}