{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T08:33:26Z","timestamp":1793003606434,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Researchers Supporting Project","award":["RSP-2021\/191"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RSP-2021\/191"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fluoride (F\u2212) contamination in drinking groundwater is a significant human health risk in Pakistan. Moreover, high fluoride pollution in drinking water causes a variety of disorders, including dental, neurological, and skeletal fluorosis. The aim of this research was to evaluate the health risk of elevated fluoride in groundwater and its suitability assessment for drinking purposes. The total of (n = 37) samples were collected from community tube wells of Quetta Valley, Balochistan, Pakistan. The results show a mean pH value of 7.7, TDS of 404.6 mg\/L, EC of 500 \u00b5s\/cm, depth of 96.8 feet, and turbidity of 1.7 nephelometric turbidity units. The mean values of HCO3\u2212, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+, were 289.5, 47.5, 30.6, and 283.3 mg\/L, respectively. The mean values of SO42\u2212, NO3\u2212, K+, Cl\u2212, and Fe2+, were 34.9, 1.0, 1.6, 25.6, and 0.01 mg\/L, respectively. The F\u2212 concentration in the groundwater varied between 0.19 and 6.21, with a mean value of 1.8 mg\/L, and 18 samples out of 37 were beyond the WHO recommended limit of 1.5 mg\/L. The hydrochemical analysis results indicated that among the groundwater samples of the study area, 54% samples were Na-HCO3 type and 46% were mixed CaNaHCO3 type. The saturation indices of the mineral phases reveal that the groundwater sources of the study area were saturated with CaCO3 and halide minerals due to their positive (SI) values. Such minerals include calcite, dolomite, gypsum, and fluorite. The principal component analysis results reveal that the groundwater sources of the study area are contaminated due to geological and anthropogenic actions. The health risk assessment results of the F\u2212 concentrations show the ranges of ADDingestion for children, females, and males in the Quetta Valley, and their mean values were observed to be 0.093052, 0.068825, and 0.065071, respectively. The HQingestion mean values were 1.55086, 1.147089, and 1.084521 for children, females, and males, respectively. It was noticed that children had the highest maximum and average values of ADDingestion and HQingestion in the research area, indicating that groundwater fluoride intake poses the greatest health risk to children. The water quality index (WQI) analyses show that 44% of the samples belong to the poor-quality category, 49% were of good quality, and 8% of the samples of the study area belong to the excellent category.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19159071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T21:20:59Z","timestamp":1658784059000},"page":"9071","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Evaluation of Elevated Fluoride in Groundwater and Its Suitability Assessment for Drinking Purposes Based on Water Quality Index"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Zahid","family":"Ullah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yifan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xian-Chun","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9084-5995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdur","family":"Rashid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1987-0466","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asmat","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javed","family":"Iqbal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0337-6412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikhlid H.","family":"Almutairi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lotfi","family":"Aleya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chrono-Environnement Laboratory, UMR CNRS 6249, Bourgogne, Franche-Comt\u00e9 University, CEDEX, F-25030 Besancon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4341-2713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed M.","family":"Abdel-Daim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8839-4419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muddaser","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan 23200, Pakistan"},{"name":"Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, P.O. Box 33, Birkat Al Mauz, Nizwa 616, Oman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.04.064","article-title":"Fluoride prevalence in groundwater around a fluorite mining area in the flood plain of the River Swat, Pakistan","volume":"635","author":"Rashid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111476","article-title":"Hydrogeochemistry and health hazards of fluoride-enriched groundwater in the Tarim Basin, China","volume":"200","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hourieh Fallah, S., Bakaeian, M., Parsian, H., Amouei, A., Asgharnia, H., Ghanbarian, M., Mousapour, A., Tabarinai, H., Oskoei, V., and Miri, S.A. 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