{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T00:45:06Z","timestamp":1779237906309,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Mavrovouni refugee camp near the former Moria camp on the island of Lesvos, Greece, housed approximately 3000 asylum-seekers including children as of October 2021. The camp was built on the site of a military shooting range. This study aimed to characterize the soil contaminants and assess the risk of toxic environmental exposures for children living in Mavrovouni. Methods: Samples of surface soil (0\u20132 cm depth; particle size &lt; 2 mm) from eight locations inside the camp were compared with two reference samples. Soil samples were microwave digested using a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids and analyzed for lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), and other metals using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. These values were compared with action limits established by the Norwegian Environment Agency for kindergartens, playgrounds, and schools. Findings: Five of eight soil samples from inside the camp exceeded Pb levels of 100 mg\/kg, which is currently the maximum acceptable value of Pb in soil for playgrounds in Norway. Two sites had extreme soil Pb levels of approximately 8000 mg\/kg and 6000 mg\/kg. The concen-tration of Sb and Bi in the surface soil of the firing range area strongly indicated environmental contamination, most likely from previous military activity and ammunition residue that has re-mained on the surface soil. Concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) in surface soil were lower than action limits. Discussion: Extremely high levels of Pb, together with high levels of Sb and Bi, were identified in soil where children live and play in the Mavrovouni refugee camp. This is the first independent study of environmental contamination at this camp and adds to the limited evidence base documenting Pb exposures prior to migrant and refugee reset-tlement. On top of the multiple existing public health crises and traumas that these asylum-seeking families face, exposure to toxic ammunition residues may have profound impacts on children\u2019s development and health for years to come.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191610086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T20:58:08Z","timestamp":1660597088000},"page":"10086","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Ammunition Waste Pollution and Preliminary Assessment of Risks to Child Health from Toxic Metals at the Greek Refugee Camp Mavrovouni"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Katrin","family":"Glatz Brubakk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Out-Patient Clinic for Children and Adolescents, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7034 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7771-0153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elin Lovise Folven","family":"Gjengedal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), NO-1432 Aas, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"\u00d8yvind","family":"Enger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), NO-1432 Aas, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6976-5755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kam","family":"Sripada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Global Health Inequalities Research (CHAIN), Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hellenic Republic Ministry of Migration and Asylum (2022, June 20). Response Letter from Minister Notis Mitarachi to Judith Sunderland of Human Rights Watch, Available online: https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/sites\/default\/files\/media_2020\/12\/Letter%20of%20Minister%20Mitarachi%20to%20HRW.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9071","DOI":"10.1021\/es901834h","article-title":"Evaluation of Small Arms Range Soils for Metal Contamination and Lead Bioavailability","volume":"43","author":"Bannon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a178","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1306945","article-title":"Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment","volume":"121","author":"Bellinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.05.062","article-title":"Soil pollution at outdoor shooting ranges: Health effects, bioavailability and best management practices","volume":"216","author":"Fayiga","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-017-0246-0","article-title":"Lead exposure at firing ranges\u2014A review","volume":"16","author":"Laidlaw","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s40726-018-0089-5","article-title":"Contamination, Fate and Management of Metals in Shooting Range Soils\u2014A Review","volume":"4","author":"Sanderson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Pollut. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"13","article-title":"Soil is an important pathway of human lead exposure","volume":"106","author":"Mielke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"100742","article-title":"Mechanisms of children\u2019s soil exposure","volume":"50","author":"Schachter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Pediatr. Adolesc. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"CDC (2022, June 20). CDC Response to Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Recommendations in \u201cLow Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call of Primary Prevention\u201d, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nceh\/lead\/acclpp\/cdc_response_lead_exposure_recs.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landrigan, P.J., and Etzel, R.A. (2013). Textbook of Children\u2019s Environmental Health, Oxford University Press. Available online: https:\/\/oxfordmedicine.com\/view\/10.1093\/med\/9780199929573.001.0001\/med-9780199929573.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780199929573.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.S3.996","article-title":"Children\u2019s behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environmental contaminants","volume":"113","author":"Moya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (2021, December 13). Exposure Factors Handbook Chapter 5 (Update): Soil and Dust Ingestion, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/expobox\/exposure-factors-handbook-chapter-5."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3416","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2015-1394","article-title":"Developmental Origins of Health and Disease: Integrating Environmental Influences","volume":"156","author":"Heindel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413","article-title":"The Impact of Toxins on the Developing Brain","volume":"36","author":"Lanphear","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020104118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2020104118","article-title":"The Impact of Childhood Lead Exposure on Adult Personality: Evidence from the United States, Europe, and a Large-Scale Natural Experiment","volume":"118","author":"Schwaba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22058","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1906092116","article-title":"The concurrent decline of soil lead and children\u2019s blood lead in New Orleans","volume":"116","author":"Mielke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"UNICEF, Pure Earth (2021, May 28). The Toxic Truth: Children\u2019s Exposure to Lead Pollution Undermines a Generation of Future Potential. Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/reports\/toxic-truth-childrens-exposure-to-lead-pollution-2020."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-019-00880-y","article-title":"Lead Exposure in Newly Resettled Pediatric Refugees in Syracuse, NY","volume":"22","author":"Lupone","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minor. Health."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1080\/10428232.2012.715376","article-title":"Environmental Inequality: Childhood Lead Poisoning as an Inadvertent Consequence of the Refugee Resettlement Process","volume":"23","author":"Caron","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Progress. Hum. Serv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-015-0243-8","article-title":"Behavioral and Environmental Explanations of Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Immigrant Children and Children of Immigrants","volume":"18","author":"Kaplowitz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minor. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"EAGME (2021, May 28). Geochemical Quality Control of Soil and Groundwater in Lesvos Prefecture (Original Title: \u0393\u03b5\u03c9\u03c7\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 \u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u03b4\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c5\u03c0\u03cc\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5 \u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c7\u03ce\u03bd \u03bd. \u039b\u03ad\u03c3\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5), Available online: https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/document\/492488195\/EAGME-Lesvos-Fin-Jan2021-Min."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, M., Petsios, K., Dikalioti, S.K., Poulopoulou, S., Matziou, V., Theocharis, S., and Pavlopoulou, I.D. (2018). Lead Exposure and Associated Risk Factors among New Migrant Children Arriving in Greece. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15061057"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2018-316342","article-title":"Child health crisis in Moria: A call to attention","volume":"104","author":"Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Addinsoft (2020). XLSTAT Statistical and Data Analysis Solution, XLSTAT. Available online: https:\/\/www.xlstat.com."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"SFT (2021, December 13). Jordforurensning i Barnehager og p\u00e5 Lekeplasser. Veileder for Utf\u00f8ring av Tiltak i Eksisterende Barnehager. Fjerning av Jordforurensning og Impregnert Trevirke (Soil Pollution in Kindergartens and Playgrounds). Statens forurensningstilsyn: Milj\u00f8direktoratet\/Norwegian Environment Agency, Available online: https:\/\/www.miljodirektoratet.no\/publikasjoner\/publikasjoner-fra-klif\/2009\/november\/jordforurensning-i-barnehager-og-pa-lekeplasser.veileder-for-utforing-av-tiltak-i-eksisterende-barnehager.-fjerning-av-jordforurensning-og-impregnert-trevirke\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Alexander, J. (2021, December 13). Anbefalte Kvalitetskriterier for Jord i Barnehager, Lekeplasser og Skoler Basert p\u00e5 Helsevurderinger (Health-Based Soil Quality Criteria for Day-Care Centers, Playgrounds and Schoolyards). Avdeling for N\u00e6ringsmiddeltoksikologi, Divisjon for Milj\u00f8medisin, Nasjonalt Folkehelseinstitutt. Available online: https:\/\/docplayer.me\/17497951-Anbefalte-kvalitetskriterier-for-jord-i-barnehager-lekeplasser-og-skoler-basert-pa-helsevurderinger.html."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113516","article-title":"The special vulnerability of children","volume":"227","author":"Etzel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belanteri, R.A., Hinderaker, S.G., Wilkinson, E., Episkopou, M., Timire, C., De Plecker, E., Mabhala, M., Takarinda, K.C., and Bergh, R.V.D. (2020). Sexual violence against migrants and asylum seekers. The experience of the MSF clinic on Lesvos Island, Greece. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239187"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i52","DOI":"10.1093\/jrs\/fez018","article-title":"Asylum-seeking Parents\u2019 Reports of Health Deterioration in Their Children since Fleeing Their Home Country","volume":"32","author":"Stathopoulou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Refug. Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/1403494820934952","article-title":"Refugee camps and COVID-19: Can we prevent a humanitarian crisis?","volume":"49","author":"Vonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Public Health."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medgyesi, D.N., Brogan, J.M., Sewell, D.K., Creve-Coeur, J.P., Kwong, L.H., and Baker, K.K. (2018). Where Children Play: Young Child Exposure to Environmental Hazards during Play in Public Areas in a Transitioning Internally Displaced Persons Community in Haiti. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15081646"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa022848","article-title":"Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations below 10 \u03bcg per Deciliter","volume":"348","author":"Canfield","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7688","article-title":"Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children\u2019s Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis","volume":"113","author":"Lanphear","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1515\/intox-2015-0009","article-title":"Lead toxicity: A review","volume":"8","author":"Wani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.11.104","article-title":"The source of lead determines the relationship between soil properties and lead bioaccessibility","volume":"246","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4267","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7124267","article-title":"Antimony Toxicity","volume":"7","author":"Sundar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(22)00219-4","article-title":"Carcinogenicity of cobalt, antimony compounds, and weapons-grade tungsten alloy","volume":"23","author":"Karagas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6431","DOI":"10.1021\/es302448k","article-title":"Antimony (Sb) Contaminated Shooting Range Soil: Sb Mobility and Immobilization by Soil Amendments","volume":"47","author":"Okkenhaug","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/0269-7491(90)90166-A","article-title":"Distribution of antimony in contaminated grassland: 2\u2014small mammals and invertebrates","volume":"65","author":"Ainsworth","year":"1990","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"ATSDR (2021, December 10). Toxicological Profile for Antimony and Compounds, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp23.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, N., and Sun, H. (2011). Bismuth: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects. Encycl. Environ. Health, 414\u2013420.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52272-6.00374-3"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Wexler, P. (2014). Bismuth. Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/B9780123864543008228."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-008-9181-x","article-title":"Soil pollution in day-care centers and playgrounds in Norway: National action plan for mapping and remediation","volume":"30","author":"Ottesen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Carlon, C. (2007). Derivation Methods of Soil Screening Values in Europe: A Review of National Procedures towards Harmonisation, EU Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2009.184408","article-title":"Blood lead levels of refugee children resettled in Massachusetts, 2000 to 2007","volume":"101","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"European Parliament (2021, January 25). Question Reference E-005890\/2020; Answer Given by Ms Johanssonon Behalf of the European Commission, Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/doceo\/document\/E-9-2020-005890-ASW_EN.html."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.08.009","article-title":"\u201cBeginning with the Smallest Intake\u201d: Children\u2019s Brain Development and the Role of Neuroscience in Global Environmental Health","volume":"95","author":"Sripada","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/16\/10086\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:09:02Z","timestamp":1760141342000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/16\/10086"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph191610086"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph191610086","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]}}}