{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:39:14Z","timestamp":1760243954566,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663113600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Laypersons\u2019 causal beliefs about mental disorders can differ considerably from medical or psychosocial clinicians\u2019 models as they are shaped by social and cultural context and by personal experiences. This study aimed at identifying differences in causal beliefs about post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by country and gender. A cross-sectional, vignette-based online survey was conducted with 737 participants from Germany, Greece, Ecuador, Mexico, and Russia. Participants were presented with a short unlabeled case vignette describing a person with symptoms of PTSD. Causal beliefs were assessed using an open-ended question asking for the three most likely causes. Answers were analyzed using thematic analysis. Afterwards, themes were transformed into categorical variables to analyze differences by country and by gender. Qualitative analyses revealed a wide range of different causal beliefs. Themes differed by gender, with women tending to mention more external causal beliefs. Themes also differed between the five countries but the differences between countries were more pronounced for women than for men. In conclusion, causal beliefs were multifaceted among laypersons and shared basic characteristics with empirically derived risk factors. The more pronounced differences for women suggest that potential gender effects should be considered in cross-cultural research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191811594","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]],"date-time":"2022-09-14T20:50:45Z","timestamp":1663188645000},"page":"11594","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Do Gender and Country of Residence Matter? A Mixed Methods Study on Lay Causal Beliefs about PTSD"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1449-9079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caroline","family":"Meyer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Psychological Intervention, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Louisa","family":"Heinzl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Psychological Intervention, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Kampisiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Psychological Intervention, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4075-2579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia","family":"Triliva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Crete, 74100 Rethymno, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christine","family":"Knaevelsrud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Psychological Intervention, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nadine","family":"Stammel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Clinical Psychological Intervention, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]]},"reference":[{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), American Psychiatric Pub.","key":"ref_1","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000167","article-title":"Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: Prevalence, correlates and consequences","volume":"28","author":"Atwoli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ESEMeD\/MHEDEA Investigators, Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Bernert, S., Bruffaerts, R., Brugha, T., Bryson, H., de Girolamo, G., de Graaf, R., and Demyttenaere, K. (2004). Prevalence of mental disorders in Europe: Results from the European study of the epidemiology of mental disorders (esemed) project. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 109, 21\u201327.","key":"ref_3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0047.2004.00327.x"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095305","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome","volume":"2","author":"Keane","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.68.5.748","article-title":"Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults","volume":"68","author":"Brewin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.1.52","article-title":"Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis","volume":"129","author":"Ozer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.6.959","article-title":"Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research","volume":"132","author":"Tolin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"unstructured":"Salloum, I.M., and Mezzich, J.E. (2009). Culture and mental illness: Social context and explanatory models. Psychiatric Diagnosis: Patterns and Prospects, Wiley and Sons.","key":"ref_8"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1192\/apt.bp.114.013680","article-title":"Assessing explanatory models and health beliefs: An essential but overlooked competency for clinicians","volume":"23","author":"Dinos","year":"2017","journal-title":"BJPsych Adv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-016-0065-7","article-title":"Beliefs and knowledge about post-traumatic stress disorder amongst resettled Afghan refugees in Australia","volume":"10","author":"Yaser","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025957","article-title":"Mental health literacy: Empowering the community to take action for better mental health","volume":"67","author":"Jorm","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slewa-Younan, S., Rioseco, P., Guajardo, M.G.U., and Mond, J. (2019). Predictors of professional help-seeking for emotional problems in Afghan and Iraqi refugees in Australia: Findings from the building a new life in Australia database. BMC Public Health, 19.","key":"ref_12","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7673-5"},{"unstructured":"Ghane, S. (2011). Illness Attributions among Ethnic Minorities: Assessment and Clinical Relevance, Universiteit van Amsterdam.","key":"ref_13"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.encep.2020.09.011","article-title":"Assessment of illness representations in mental disorders: A mini review","volume":"47","author":"Averous","year":"2021","journal-title":"L\u2032encephale"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2019.101812","article-title":"Perceptions of mental health and perceived barriers to mental health help-seeking amongst refugees: A systematic review","volume":"75","author":"Byrow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1080\/00981389.2015.1046578","article-title":"Somali refugees\u2019 perceptions of mental illness","volume":"54","author":"Bettmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Work Health Care"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732314549475","article-title":"Exploring the mental health effects of political trauma with newly arrived refugees","volume":"25","author":"Shannon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Qual. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-013-9861-1","article-title":"Psychological distress in Afghan refugees: A mixed-method systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Alemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minor Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00628","article-title":"\u201cIt\u2032s that route that makes us sick\u201d: Exploring lay beliefs about causes of post-traumatic stress disorder among sub-Saharan African asylum seekers in Germany","volume":"9","author":"Grupp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1080\/09687599.2013.769863","article-title":"Participatory action research with asylum seekers and refugees experiencing stigma and discrimination: The experience from Scotland","volume":"29","author":"Quinn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Disabil. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1007\/s11013-018-9592-9","article-title":"\u201cIf one does not fulfil his duties, he must not be a man\u201d: Masculinity, mental health and resilience amongst Sri Lankan Tamil refugee men in Canada","volume":"42","author":"Affleck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cult. Med. Psychiat."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1080\/03069885.2017.1370534","article-title":"Iraqi refugee men\u2019s experiences of psychotherapy: Clinical implications and the proposal of a pluralistic model","volume":"45","author":"Wheeler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brit. J. Guid. Couns."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/pst0000159","article-title":"Introduction to special issue: Cultural processes in psychotherapy","volume":"55","author":"Owen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychotherapy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1177\/0272684X18819962","article-title":"Sociocultural perceptions and enablers to seeking mental health support among Bhutanese refugees in western Massachusetts","volume":"39","author":"Jacelon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Q. Community Health Educ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1177\/1363461516689003","article-title":"Causal attributions of mental health problems and depressive symptoms among older Somali refugees in Finland","volume":"54","author":"Kuittinen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transcult. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-016-0109-z","article-title":"Causes of and risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder: The beliefs of Iraqi and Afghan refugees resettled in Australia","volume":"11","author":"Guajardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-013-0793-9","article-title":"Mental health literacy among refugee communities: Differences between the Australian lay public and the Iraqi and Sudanese refugee communities","volume":"49","author":"May","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc. Psych. Psych. Epid."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1177\/1363461516660937","article-title":"Contextualizing Afghan refugee views of depression through narratives of trauma, resettlement stress, and coping","volume":"53","author":"Alemi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transcult. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1097\/01.nmd.0000172474.86877.2b","article-title":"PTSD and treatment adherence: The role of health beliefs","volume":"193","author":"Spoont","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/08870449608400270","article-title":"The illness perception questionnaire: A new method for assessing the cognitive representation of illness","volume":"11","author":"Weinman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychol. Health"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reichardt, J., Ebrahimi, A., Dehsorkhi, H.N., Mewes, R., Weise, C., Afshar, H., Adibi, P., Dehkordy, S.M., Yeganeh, G., and Reich, H. (2018). Why is this happening to me?\u2014A comparison of illness representations between Iranian and German people with mental illness. BMC Psychol., 6.","key":"ref_31","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-018-0250-3"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brea Larios, D., Sandal, G.M., Guribye, E., Markova, V., and Sam, D.L. (2022). Explanatory models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression among Afghan refugees in Norway. BMC Psychol., 10.","key":"ref_32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-021-00709-0"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maercker, A., Heim, E., and Kirmayer, L.J. (2019). Cultural psychology is more than cross-cultural comparisons. Cultural Clinical Psychology and PTSD, Hogrefe Verlag.","key":"ref_33","DOI":"10.1027\/00497-000"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039","article-title":"Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color","volume":"43","author":"Crenshaw","year":"1991","journal-title":"Stanf. Law Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073014-112142","article-title":"Intersectionality\u2032s definitional dilemmas","volume":"41","author":"Collins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"32","article-title":"Intersectionalities of influence: Researching the health of immigrant and refugee women","volume":"36","author":"Guruge","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014564","article-title":"Intersectionality and research in psychology","volume":"64","author":"Cole","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1080\/02703149.2020.1729473","article-title":"From buzzword to critical psychology: An invitation to take intersectionality seriously","volume":"43","author":"Grzanka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Women"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2923.2011.04199.x","article-title":"Improving cultural competence education: The utility of an intersectional framework","volume":"46","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796017000142","article-title":"Taking an intersectional approach to define latent classes of socioeconomic status, ethnicity and migration status for psychiatric epidemiological research","volume":"27","author":"Goodwin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2011.02.034","article-title":"Understanding how race\/ethnicity and gender define age-trajectories of disability: An intersectionality approach","volume":"72","author":"Warner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.5042\/ijmhsc.2011.0152","article-title":"Intersectionality and the mental health of elderly Chinese women living in the UK","volume":"6","author":"Lane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Migr. Health Soc. Care"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1037\/pst0000152","article-title":"Intersectionality in psychotherapy: The experiences of an afrolatinx queer immigrant","volume":"55","author":"Adames","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychotherapy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243211426725","article-title":"Intersectionality in a transnational world","volume":"26","author":"Purkayastha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gend. Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243204273021","article-title":"Conceptualizing gender-sexuality-state-nation: An introduction","volume":"19","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gend. Soc."},{"unstructured":"(2018). EFS Survey [Computer Software]. Version Fall 2018, Questback GmbH. Available online: https:\/\/www.unipark.com\/en\/.","key":"ref_46"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"221","article-title":"The revised illness perception questionnaire (IPQ-R)","volume":"17","author":"Weinman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Health"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-199011000-00007","article-title":"Classification of natural and supernatural causes of mental distress: Development of a mental distress explanatory model questionnaire","volume":"178","author":"Eisenbruch","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028085","article-title":"Identifying careless responses in survey data","volume":"17","author":"Meade","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"unstructured":"R Core Team (2022). A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Computer Software], R Core Team.","key":"ref_50"},{"unstructured":"SPSS [Computer Software] (2020). Version 27.0, IBM Corp.. Available online: https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/products\/spss-statistics.","key":"ref_51"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"unstructured":"(2019). VERBI Software, Maxqda 2020 [Computer Software], VERBI Software. Available online: https:\/\/www.maxqda.com.","key":"ref_53"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bortz, J., and Schuster, C. (2011). Statistik F\u00fcr Human-Und Sozialwissenschaftler: Limitierte Sonderausgabe, Springer.","key":"ref_54","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-12770-0"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12131","article-title":"When to use the Bonferroni correction","volume":"34","author":"Armstrong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthal. Physl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.2307\/2529786","article-title":"An application of hierarchical kappa-type statistics in the assessment of majority agreement among multiple observers","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029333","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2022.2029333","article-title":"Lay causal beliefs about PTSD and cultural correlates in five countries","volume":"13","author":"Meyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumato"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v67n0614","article-title":"Assessing explanatory models for common mental disorders","volume":"67","author":"Bhui","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiat."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105308100218","article-title":"Concept, development and application of a new mixed method assessment of cultural variations in illness perceptions: Barts explanatory model inventory","volume":"14","author":"Bhui","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reavley, N.J., and Jorm, A.F. (2011). National Survey of Mental Health Literacy and Stigma.","key":"ref_61","DOI":"10.3109\/00048674.2011.621061"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.185.1.25","article-title":"Explanatory models of illness in schizophrenia: Comparison of four ethnic groups","volume":"185","author":"McCabe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1177\/0020764015595664","article-title":"\u2018We don\u2019t have to go and see a special person to solve this problem\u2019: Trauma, mental health beliefs and processes for addressing \u2018mental health issues\u2019 among Sudanese refugees in Australia","volume":"62","author":"Savic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2008.06.006","article-title":"Attribution of blame in cases of rape: An analysis of participant gender, type of rape and perceived similarity to the victim","volume":"13","author":"Grubb","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2014.07.008","article-title":"A review of the literature relating to rape victim blaming: An analysis of the impact of observer and victim characteristics on attribution of blame in rape cases","volume":"19","author":"Grubb","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)08221-1","article-title":"Violence against women: Global scope and magnitude","volume":"359","author":"Watts","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260504263868","article-title":"Gender inequality, violence against women, and fear: A cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women","volume":"19","author":"Yodanis","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2005.036533","article-title":"Acceptability of domestic violence against women in the European union: A multilevel analysis","volume":"60","author":"Gracia","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025108103617","article-title":"Attitudes toward violence against women: A cross-nation study","volume":"49","author":"Nayak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18762","DOI":"10.2196\/18762","article-title":"Performance, cost-effectiveness, and representativeness of Facebook recruitment to suicide prevention research: Online survey study","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"JMIR Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1177\/0193945917740706","article-title":"Using Facebook and LinkedIn to recruit nurses for an online survey","volume":"41","author":"Stokes","year":"2019","journal-title":"West. J. Nurs. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18100","DOI":"10.2196\/18100","article-title":"Effects of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy in routine care for adults in treatment for depression and anxiety: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Etzelmueller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-015-0681-9","article-title":"Mental health literacy measures evaluating knowledge, attitudes and help-seeking: A scoping review","volume":"15","author":"Wei","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"unstructured":"Magda, L.A. (2016). Who Is to Blame? The Effects of Causal Attributions, Trauma Type, and Gender on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Literacy, Fairleigh Dickinson University.","key":"ref_74"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/18\/11594\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:31:40Z","timestamp":1760142700000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/18\/11594"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph191811594"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph191811594","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,14]]}}}