{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T22:08:25Z","timestamp":1767650905821,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,1]],"date-time":"2022-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Autonomous National University of Mexico","award":["DGAPA-IV300121"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DGAPA-IV300121"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Worldwide, three out of four of the general population have reported experiencing violence. Governments should address solutions to violence and its effects on mental health. The study aimed to determine depressive, anxious, and posttraumatic stress symptoms related to the violence experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic in the general population. The study was conducted with 18,449 Mexicans of 33 years (SD = 11.00, range = 18\u201359), with 12,188 (66.10%) being women, 3559 (19.29%) having COVID-19, 2706 (14.67%) seeking psychological care, and 5712 (30.96%) experiencing violence. Subjects completed the Major Depressive Episode (MDE) Checklist, Generalized Anxiety (GA) Scale, and the Posttraumatic Stress (PTS) Checklists (PCL-5) programmed in a WebApp application. We assessed the dimensionality of the scales through the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), the measurement invariance, and a structural equation model (SEM). In the total sample, 28.10% fulfilled the MDE criteria, and 42.30% had high levels of GA. In the sample of those experiencing violence, 48.40% met the MDE criteria, 61.70% had high GA symptoms, and 50% met the criteria for a PTS disorder. Experiencing violence was associated with GA and severe PTS symptoms when the discomfort had bothered them for over a month since the onset of these symptoms. Subjects who had experienced violence and had mental health symptoms seemed ready for treatment. Further studies will evaluate the effect of remote psychological care to help reduce the treatment gap.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191912559","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]],"date-time":"2022-10-08T22:19:27Z","timestamp":1665267567000},"page":"12559","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Depressive, Anxious, and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms Related to Violence during the COVID-19 Pandemic, by Sex, COVID-19 Status, and Intervention-Seeking Conditions among the General Population"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9269-7877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Morales Chain\u00e9","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Psicolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5958-7393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebeca","family":"Robles Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr\u00eda \u201cRam\u00f3n de la Fuente Mu\u00f1iz\u201d, Mexico City 14370, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Bosch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Direcci\u00f3n General de Atenci\u00f3n a la Comunidad, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Mexico City 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claudia Lydia","family":"Trevi\u00f1o Santa Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Biotecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.11.031","article-title":"Long-term effects of COVID-19 on mental health: A systematic review","volume":"299","author":"Bourmistrova","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30203-0","article-title":"Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"7","author":"Rogers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, July 06). COVID-19 and Violence against Women: What the Health Sector\/System Can Do, 7 April 2020. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/331699."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656036","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.656036","article-title":"Mental Health Symptoms, Binge Drinking, and the Experience of Abuse during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Mexico","volume":"9","author":"Bosch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882573","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.882573","article-title":"Screening Tool for Mental Health Problems During COVID-19 Pandemic: Psychometrics and Associations with Sex, Grieving, Contagion, and Seeking Psychological Care","volume":"13","author":"Robles","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22059","article-title":"The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation","volume":"28","author":"Blevins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Huska, J., and Keane, T. (1994). PTSD CheckList (PCL-C), National Center for PTSD-Behavioral Science Division."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2017.02.025","article-title":"Screening for anxiety, depression, and anxious depression in primary care: A field study for ICD-11 PHC","volume":"213","author":"Goldberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bollen, K.A., and Long, J.S. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Testing Structural Equation Models, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Hoyle, R.H. (2012). Model fit and model selection in structural equation modeling. Handbook of Structural Equation Modeling, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Millsap, R.E. (2011). Statistical Approaches to Measurement Invariance, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203821961"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2011.04.007","article-title":"The factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: A literature update, critique of methodology, and agenda for future research","volume":"25","author":"Elhai","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20837","article-title":"Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL) Military, Civilian, and Specific versions","volume":"28","author":"Wilkins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2022, August 15). mhGAP Intervention Guide for Mental, Neurological, and Substance Use Disorders in Non-Specialized Health Settings: Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP; 2016)\u2014Version 2.0. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/250239."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"11","article-title":"Condiciones de salud mental durante la pandemia por COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Bosch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Int. Investig. Adicciones"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2022, August 15). Ley General de Protecci\u00f3n de Datos Personales en Posesi\u00f3n de Sujetos Obligados (LGPDPPSO, 2017). Available online: http:\/\/www.diputados.gob.mx\/LeyesBiblio\/pdf\/LGPDPPSO.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Keane, T.M., Palmieri, P.A., Marx, B.P., and Schnurr, P.P. (2022, August 15). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5)\u2014LEC-5 and Extended Criterion A [Measurement Instrument], Available online: https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/professional\/assessment\/adult-sr\/ptsd-checklist.asp."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Keane, T.M., Palmieri, P.A., Marx, B.P., and Schnurr, P.P. (2022, August 15). The PTSD CheckList for DSM-5 (PCL-5), Available online: https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/professional\/assessment\/adult-sr\/ptsd-checklist.asp."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02291393","article-title":"Statistical analysis of sets of congeneric tests","volume":"36","year":"1971","journal-title":"Psycometrika"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8317.1974.tb00543.x","article-title":"A general method for studying differences in factor means and factor structures between groups","volume":"27","year":"1974","journal-title":"Br. J. Math. Stat. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1177\/109442810031002","article-title":"A review and Synthesis of the Measurement Invariance Literature: Suggestions, Practices, and Recommendations for Organizational Research","volume":"3","author":"Vanderberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Metho"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1207\/S15328007SEM0902_5","article-title":"Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit Indexes for Testing Measurement Invariance","volume":"9","author":"Cheug","year":"2002","journal-title":"Struct. Equ. Modeling"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"R Core Team (2018). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"IBM Corp (2017). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0, IBM Corp.. Released 2017."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2010.06.012","article-title":"The diagnostic accuracy of the PTSD Checklist: A critical review","volume":"30","author":"McDonald","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1177\/00207640211003121","article-title":"Prevalence of anxiety, depression, and psychological distress among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"67","author":"Necho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"78","article-title":"Estr\u00e9s, s\u00edndrome general de adaptaci\u00f3n o reacci\u00f3n general de alarma","volume":"17","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9dico Cient\u00edfica"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Wang, Y., Xue, J., Zhao, N., and Zhu, T. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: A study on active Weibo users. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17062032"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.17711\/SM.0185-3325.2016.003","article-title":"Los especialistas en psiquiatr\u00eda en M\u00e9xico: A\u00f1o 2016","volume":"39","author":"Heinze","year":"2016","journal-title":"Salud Ment."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/19\/12559\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:45:10Z","timestamp":1760143510000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/19\/12559"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,1]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph191912559"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph191912559","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,1]]}}}