{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T18:36:24Z","timestamp":1782844584999,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,5]],"date-time":"2022-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UK Department of Health &amp; Social Care"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Safety of the environment in which vegetables are grown, marketed and consumed is paramount as most are eaten raw. Irrigation sources include open drains and streams, which are often contaminated with human and animal waste due to poor sanitation infrastructure. In irrigated vegetable farms using such sources in Ghana, we assessed Escherichia coli counts, antibiotic resistance patterns and resistant genes on irrigated lettuce. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between January\u2013May 2022, involving five major vegetable farms in Ghana. Results: Escherichia coli was found in all 25 composite lettuce samples analyzed. Counts expressed in CFU\/g ranged from 186 to 3000, with the highest counts found in lettuce irrigated from open drains (1670) and tap water using hose pipes (3000). Among all bacterial isolates, resistance ranged between 49% and 70% for the Watch group of antibiotics, 59% for the Reserved group and 82% were multidrug-resistant. Of 125 isolates, 60 (48%) were extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing, of which five (8%) had the blaTEM-resistant gene. Conclusions: Lettuce was contaminated with Escherichia coli with high levels of antibiotic resistance. We call on the Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Food and Drugs Authority and other stakeholders to support farmers to implement measures for improving vegetable safety.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191912722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]],"date-time":"2022-10-08T22:19:27Z","timestamp":1665267567000},"page":"12722","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["What Is in the Salad? Escherichia coli and Antibiotic Resistance in Lettuce Irrigated with Various Water Sources in Ghana"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3743-020X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerard","family":"Quarcoo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"},{"name":"Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Private Mail Bag, University Post Office, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9478-0057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lady A.","family":"Boamah Adomako","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arpine","family":"Abrahamyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Research and Prevention Center, Yerevan 0014, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Armoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7691-914X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Augustina A.","family":"Sylverken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Private Mail Bag, University Post Office, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Private Mail Bag, University Post Office, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew Glover","family":"Addo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Private Mail Bag, University Post Office, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1319-8004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sevak","family":"Alaverdyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Research and Prevention Center, Yerevan 0014, Armenia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1160-3099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nasreen S.","family":"Jessani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Evidence-Based Health Care, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6113-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony D.","family":"Harries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 75001 Paris, France"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4790-152X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hawa","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Regina A.","family":"Banu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Selorm","family":"Borbor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark O.","family":"Akrong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9102-8521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nana A.","family":"Amonoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5113-4269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel M. O.","family":"Bekoe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8541-5015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike Y.","family":"Osei-Atweneboana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute, Achimota P.O. Box AH 38, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2915-9328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rony","family":"Zachariah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United Nations Children Fund, United Nations Development Programme, World Bank, World Health Organization, Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) WHO, 20, Avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"82","article-title":"Health Benefits of Vegetables","volume":"7","author":"Varadaraju","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Chem. Stud."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Drechsel, P., and Keraita, B. (2014). 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