{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]],"date-time":"2026-08-08T05:43:28Z","timestamp":1786167808740,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]],"date-time":"2022-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies on adverse health effects associated with air pollution mostly focus on individual pollutants. However, the air is a complex medium, and thus epidemiological studies face many challenges and limitations in the multipollutant approach. NO2 and PM2.5 have been selected as both originating from combustion processes and are considered to be the main pollutants associated with traffic; moreover, both elicit oxidative stress responses. An answer to the question of whether synergistic or antagonistic health effects of combined pollutants are demonstrated by pollutants monitored in ambient air is not explicit. Among the analyzed studies, only a few revealed statistical significance. Exposure to a single pollutant (PM2.5 or NO2) was mostly associated with a small increase in non-accidental mortality (HR:1.01\u20131.03). PM2.5 increase of &lt;10 \u00b5g\/m3 adjusted for NO2 as well as NO2 adjusted for PM2.5 resulted in a slightly lower health risk than a single pollutant. In the case of cardiovascular heart disease, mortality evoked by exposure to PM2.5 or NO2 adjusted for NO2 and PM2.5, respectively, revealed an antagonistic effect on health risk compared to the single pollutant. Both short- and long-term exposure to PM2.5 or NO2 adjusted for NO2 and PM2.5, respectively, revealed a synergistic effect appearing as higher mortality from respiratory diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114079","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,30]],"date-time":"2022-10-30T04:57:34Z","timestamp":1667105854000},"page":"14079","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Synergistic or Antagonistic Health Effects of Long- and Short-Term Exposure to Ambient NO2 and PM2.5: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2499-1764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Mainka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Silesian University of Technology, 22B Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6906-1301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"\u017bak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Air Protection, Silesian University of Technology, 22B Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111487","article-title":"Effects of Air Pollution on Health: A Mapping Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"201","author":"Dominski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e031312","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-031312","article-title":"Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution and Its Human-Related Health Outcomes: An Evidence Gap Map","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adebayo-Ojo, T.C., Wichmann, J., Arowosegbe, O.O., Probst-Hensch, N., Schindler, C., and K\u00fcnzli, N. (2022). Short-Term Effects of PM10, NO2, SO2 and O3 on Cardio-Respiratory Mortality in Cape Town, South Africa, 2006\u20132015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19138078"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adebayo-Ojo, T.C., Wichmann, J., Arowosegbe, O.O., Probst-Hensch, N., Schindler, C., and K\u00fcnzli, N. (2022). Short-Term Joint Effects of PM10, NO2 and SO2 on Cardio-Respiratory Disease Hospital Admissions in Cape Town, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010495"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1097\/MAJ.0b013e31803b900f","article-title":"Outdoor Air Pollution: Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide, and Carbon Monoxide Health Effects","volume":"333","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1409276","article-title":"Ambient PM2.5, O3, and NO2 Exposures and Associations with Mortality over 16 Years of Follow-up in the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (CanCHEC)","volume":"123","author":"Crouse","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113259","article-title":"K-Means Cluster Analysis of Cooperative Effects of CO, NO2, O3, PM2.5, PM10, and SO2 on Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in the US","volume":"212","author":"Riches","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.1335","article-title":"Association of NO2 and Other Air Pollution Exposures With the Risk of Parkinson Disease","volume":"78","author":"Jo","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126002","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP4595","article-title":"Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"127","author":"Braithwaite","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105876","article-title":"Short-Term Exposure to Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), and Ozone (O3) and All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"142","author":"Orellano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Wang, H., Hu, H., Wu, Z., Chen, K., and Mao, Z. (2019). Effect of Ambient Air Pollution on Premature SGA in Changzhou City, 2013-2016: A Retrospective Study. BMC Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7055-z"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-020-00637-3","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to a Mixture of Industrial SO2, NO2, and PM2.5 and Anti-Citrullinated Protein Antibody Positivity","volume":"19","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e018341","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-018341","article-title":"Is Ambient Air Pollution Associated with Onset of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A Case-Crossover Study in the UK","volume":"8","author":"Litchfield","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloepi.2022.100073","article-title":"Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Incident Stroke in American Older Adults: A National Cohort Study","volume":"4","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.114200","article-title":"Air Quality Improvement and Cognitive Function Benefit: Insight from Clean Air Action in China","volume":"214","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108531","article-title":"Associations between Ambient Air Pollution and Mortality from All Causes, Pneumonia, and Congenital Heart Diseases among Children Aged under 5 Years in Beijing, China: A Population-Based Time Series Study","volume":"176","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"WHO (2022, September 28). Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/345329."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3109\/08958371003793846","article-title":"Is the Air Pollution Health Research Community Prepared to Support a Multipollutant Air Quality Management Framework?","volume":"22","author":"Mauderly","year":"2010","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"De Leeuw, F., and Hor\u00e1lek, J. (2016). Quantifying the Health Impacts of Ambient Air Pollution: Methodology and Input Data, ETC\/ACM."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2022, September 09). Regulatory and Guidance Information by Topic: Air|US EPA, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/regulatory-information-topic\/regulatory-and-guidance-information-topic-air#criteriapollutants."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Union, P. (2008). Directive 2008\/50\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe, Official Journal of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"US EPA (2000). Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures, EPA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2022.104055","article-title":"Multi-Scenario Simulation and Ecological Risk Analysis of Land Use Based on the PLUS Model: A Case Study of Nanjing","volume":"85","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.3109\/08958378.2012.718809","article-title":"Synergistic Effects of Exposure to Concentrated Ambient Fine Pollution Particles and Nitrogen Dioxide in Humans","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.09.024","article-title":"Personal Exposure of Children to Air Pollution","volume":"43","author":"Ashmore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"WHO (2013). Review of Evidence on Health Aspects of Air Pollution\u2014REVIHAAP Project, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-04205-2","article-title":"Characteristics and Source Apportionment of PM2.5 in Jiaxing, China","volume":"26","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2020.09.012","article-title":"Source Apportionment of PM2.5 and Visibility in Jinan, China","volume":"102","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2013.12.006","article-title":"Nutraceuticals and Dyslipidaemia: Beyond the Common Therapeutics","volume":"6","author":"Scicchitano","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)30041-8","article-title":"Health Effects of Dietary Risks in 195 Countries, 1990\u20132017: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"393","author":"Afshin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m2031","article-title":"Recommended Physical Activity and All Cause and Cause Specific Mortality in US Adults: Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"370","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010751","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-010751","article-title":"Distinguishing the Associations between Daily Mortality and Hospital Admissions and Nitrogen Dioxide from Those of Particulate Matter: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"6","author":"Mills","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw, S., and van Heyst, B. (2022). An Evaluation of Risk Ratios on Physical and Mental Health Correlations Due to Increases in Ambient Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Concentrations. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13060967"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1939-4640.2001.tb02212.x","article-title":"Understanding the Odds Ratio and the Relative Risk","volume":"22","author":"Simon","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Worthington, D. (2020). Dictionary of Environmental Health, Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"6","article-title":"What\u2019s the Risk: Differentiating Risk Ratios, Odds Ratios, and Hazard Ratios?","volume":"12","author":"George","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2014.946164","article-title":"Integrating Health on Air Quality Assessment-Review Report on Health Risks of Two Major European Outdoor Air Pollutants: PM and NO\u2082","volume":"17","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390590935941","article-title":"Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: Ongoing Analyses Based on the American Cancer Society Cohort","volume":"68","author":"Krewski","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1843.2006.00886.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Health Effects of Air Pollution","volume":"11","author":"Viegi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Utell, M.J., and Frank, R. (1989). Susceptibility to Inhaled Pollutants, ASTM.","DOI":"10.1520\/STP1024-EB"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00014","article-title":"Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Manisalidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.05.014","article-title":"Long-Term Air Pollution Exposure and Diabetes in a Population-Based Swiss Cohort","volume":"70","author":"Eze","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2010.14458","article-title":"Air Pollution and Non-Respiratory Health Hazards for Children","volume":"6","author":"Kelishadi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.01.018","article-title":"Exposure to Air Pollution and Cognitive Functioning across the Life Course\u2014A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"147","author":"Clifford","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9193","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1809474115","article-title":"The Impact of Exposure to Air Pollution on Cognitive Performance","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2008.084574","article-title":"Association of Traffic-Related Air Pollution with Cognitive Development in Children","volume":"64","author":"Freire","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"364","article-title":"Association between Air Pollution and Cognitive Function in the Elderly","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-14-10","article-title":"Associations between Air Pollution and Perceived Stress: The Veterans Administration Normative Aging Study","volume":"14","author":"Mehta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1104100","article-title":"Air Pollution and Symptoms of Depression in Elderly Adults","volume":"120","author":"Lim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034004","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ac47c5","article-title":"Associations between Air Pollution and Psychiatric Symptoms in The Normative Aging Study","volume":"17","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2017.08.020","article-title":"Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and the Incidence of Dementia: A Population-Based Cohort Study","volume":"108","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2012.632359","article-title":"Composition of Air Pollution Particles and Oxidative Stress in Cells, Tissues, and Living Systems","volume":"15","author":"Ghio","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"IARC (2010). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, International Agency for Research on Cancer."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, P., Tao, F., Gao, L., Leng, S., Yang, K., and Zhou, T. (2022). Retrieval of Fine-Grained PM2.5 Spatiotemporal Resolution Based on Multiple Machine Learning Models. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030599"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3354","article-title":"Future Global Mortality from Changes in Air Pollution Attributable to Climate Change","volume":"7","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-017-9606-7","article-title":"The Mechanisms of Air Pollution and Particulate Matter in Cardiovascular Diseases","volume":"22","author":"Fiordelisi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3109\/10408449009089865","article-title":"The Interaction of Inhaled Toxicants with Respiratory Tract Clearance Mechanisms","volume":"20","author":"Schlesinger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.93.04060694","article-title":"Particle Deposition and Resistance in the Noses of Adults and Children","volume":"4","author":"Becquemin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000128587.30041.C8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association","volume":"109","author":"Brook","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.2217\/fca.12.43","article-title":"From Particles to Patients: Oxidative Stress and the Cardiovascular Effects of Air Pollution","volume":"8","author":"Miller","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2015.00294","article-title":"Fine Particulate Matter in Acute Exacerbation of COPD","volume":"6","author":"Ni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Esworthy, R. (2013). Air Quality: EPA\u2019s 2013 Changes to the Particulate Matter (PM) Standard, Congressional Research Service."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20070444","article-title":"Cardiovascular Effects of Air Pollution","volume":"115","author":"Brook","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2013.771559","article-title":"Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Myocardial Infarction in a Subtropical City: Taipei, Taiwan","volume":"76","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2013.801763","article-title":"Short-Term Effects of Fine Particulate Air Pollution on Emergency Room Visits for Cardiac Arrhythmias: A Case-Crossover Study in Taipei","volume":"76","author":"Chiu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2014.892446","article-title":"Particulate Matter From Saudi Arabia Induces Genes Involved in Inflammation, Metabolic Syndrome and Atherosclerosis","volume":"77","author":"Brocato","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1","article-title":"Particulate Matter Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease: An Update to the Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association","volume":"121","author":"Brook","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2013.01.010","article-title":"Systematic Review of Chinese Studies of Short-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Daily Mortality","volume":"54","author":"Shang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107331","article-title":"Mortality Burden Due to Long-Term Exposure to Ambient PM2.5 above the New WHO Air Quality Guideline Based on 296 Cities in China","volume":"166","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2014-205429","article-title":"Coarse Particulate Matter Associated with Increased Risk of Emergency Hospital Admissions for Pneumonia in Hong Kong","volume":"69","author":"Qiu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u0105browiecki, P., Badyda, A., Chcia\u0142owski, A., Czechowski, P.O., and Wrotek, A. (2022). Influence of Selected Air Pollutants on Mortality and Pneumonia Burden in Three Polish Cities over the Years 2011\u20132018. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11113084"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"95","article-title":"Effects of Particulate Matter on Allergic Respiratory Diseases","volume":"4","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chronic. Dis. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s10565-013-9242-5","article-title":"PM2.5 Induces Nrf2-Mediated Defense Mechanisms against Oxidative Stress by Activating PIK3\/AKT Signaling Pathway in Human Lung Alveolar Epithelial A549 Cells","volume":"29","author":"Deng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6","article-title":"Estimates and 25-Year Trends of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Air Pollution: An Analysis of Data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Health Effects Institute (2020). State of Global Air 2020, Health Effects Institute."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62158-3","article-title":"Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution on Natural-Cause Mortality: An Analysis of 22 European Cohorts within the Multicentre ESCAPE Project","volume":"383","author":"Beelen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30587","article-title":"Outdoor Air Pollution and Risk for Kidney Parenchyma Cancer in 14 European Cohorts","volume":"140","author":"Pedersen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyo, J.-S., Kim, N.Y., and Kang, D.-W. (2022). Impacts of Outdoor Particulate Matter Exposure on the Incidence of Lung Cancer and Mortality. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58091159"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(13)70279-1","article-title":"Air Pollution and Lung Cancer Incidence in 17 European Cohorts: Prospective Analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE)","volume":"14","author":"Andersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp\/1408092","article-title":"Outdoor Particulate Matter Exposure and Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"122","author":"Hamra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(13)70302-4","article-title":"Air Pollution: Another Cause of Lung Cancer","volume":"14","author":"Yorifuji","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e439","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(13)70438-8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Lung Cancer in Europe","volume":"14","author":"Sax","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113080","article-title":"Association between Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Kidney Function: Results from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"212","author":"Oh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2015.10.008","article-title":"Air Pollution, a Rising Environmental Risk Factor for Cognition, Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration: The Clinical Impact on Children and Beyond","volume":"172","author":"Leray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.01.030","article-title":"The Health Effects of Ambient PM2.5 and Potential Mechanisms","volume":"128","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"E69","article-title":"The Impact of PM2.5 on the Human Respiratory System","volume":"8","author":"Xing","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-3003.2000.15e19.x","article-title":"Effect of Serial-Day Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide on Airway and Blood Leukocytes and Lymphocyte Subsets","volume":"15","author":"Solomon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.06.00143905","article-title":"Short-Term Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide on Mortality: An Analysis within the APHEA Project","volume":"27","author":"Samoli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2013.853337","article-title":"Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Pneumonia in a Subtropical City: Taipei, Taiwan","volume":"77","author":"Tsai","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, September 28). Pneumonia. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/pneumonia#tab=tab_1."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3109\/08958378.2014.979960","article-title":"Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure and Airway Responsiveness in Individuals with Asthma","volume":"27","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2004.02.009","article-title":"Brief Exposures to NO2 Augment the Allergic Inflammation in Asthmatics","volume":"97","author":"Barck","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307240","article-title":"Repeated Nitrogen Dioxide Exposures and Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation in Asthmatics: A Randomized Crossover Study","volume":"122","author":"Ezratty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/15287399509531943","article-title":"Dual Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide on Barrier Properties of Guinea Pig Tracheobronchial Epithelial Monolayers Cultured in an Air Interface","volume":"44","author":"Robison","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110665","article-title":"Synergism between Rhinovirus Infection and Oxidant Pollutant Exposure Enhances Airway Epithelial Cell Cytokine Production","volume":"110","author":"Reddy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00114713","article-title":"Nitrogen Dioxide and Mortality: Review and Meta-Analysis of Long-Term Studies","volume":"44","author":"Faustini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200510-1678OC","article-title":"Lung Function Growth in Children with Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollutants in Mexico City","volume":"176","author":"Fortoul","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)60037-3","article-title":"Effect of Exposure to Traffic on Lung Development from 10 to 18 Years of Age: A Cohort Study","volume":"369","author":"Gauderman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e31815c0827","article-title":"Residential Outdoor Air Pollution and Lung Function in Schoolchildren","volume":"19","author":"Oftedal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201206-1045OC","article-title":"Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Lung Function in Children at 8 Years of Age: A Birth Cohort Study","volume":"186","author":"Schultz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2022.03.045","article-title":"Estimation of the Effects PM2.5, NO2, O3 Pollutants on the Health of Shahrekord Residents Based on AirQ+ Software during (2012\u20132018)","volume":"9","author":"Naghan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.2011.03776.x","article-title":"Air Pollution and Airway Disease","volume":"41","author":"Kelly","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1733","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)92886-X","article-title":"Effect of Domestic Concentrations of Nitrogen Dioxide on Airway Responses to Inhaled Allergen in Asthmatic Patients","volume":"344","author":"Tunnicliffe","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.98.12010006","article-title":"Repeated Exposure to an Ambient Level of NO2 Enhances Asthmatic Response to a Nonsymptomatic Allergen Dose","volume":"12","author":"Strand","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808797","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.808797","article-title":"The Role of Interleukin-8 in Lung Inflammation and Injury: Implications for the Management of COVID-19 and Hyperinflammatory Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome","volume":"12","author":"Cesta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.1993.1316","article-title":"Nitrogen Dioxide Reactivity with Proteins: Effects on Activity and Immunoreactivity with \u03b1-1-Proteinase Inhibitor and Implications for NO2-Mediated Peptide Degradation","volume":"304","author":"Hood","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e3181cc86e8","article-title":"Protecting Human Health from Air Pollution: Shifting from a Single-Pollutant to a Multipollutant Approach","volume":"21","author":"Dominici","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109290","article-title":"Short-Term Prenatal Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Risk of Preterm Birth\u2014A Population-Based Cohort Study in Finland","volume":"184","author":"Siddika","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.13075\/ijomeh.1896.00380","article-title":"An Approach to Represent a Combined Exposure to Air Pollution","volume":"28","author":"Szyszkowicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1205862","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Urban Air Pollution and Mortality in a Cohort of More than a Million Adults in Rome","volume":"121","author":"Cesaroni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-015-0044-5","article-title":"Associations between Ambient Air Pollutant Mixtures and Pediatric Asthma Emergency Department Visits in Three Cities: A Classification and Regression Tree Approach","volume":"14","author":"Gass","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105500","article-title":"PM2.5 and NO2 Exposure Errors Using Proxy Measures, Including Derived Personal Exposure from Outdoor Sources: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"137","author":"Evangelopoulos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Public Health England (2018). The Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution on Cardiovascular Morbidity: Mechanistic Evidence. A Report by the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants, Public Health England."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, R., Zhou, G., Zhu, T., Li, X., and Wang, G. (2017). Ambient Air Pollution and Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest in Beijing, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14040423"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.12.1012","article-title":"Hypothesis: III Health Associated with Low Concentrations of Nitrogen Dioxide\u2014An Effect of Ultrafine Particles?","volume":"58","author":"Seaton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S36","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500626","article-title":"Further Interpretation of the Acute Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide Observed in Canadian Time-Series Studies","volume":"17","author":"Brook","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.011091053","article-title":"Gaseous Pollutants in Particulate Matter Epidemiology: Confounders or Surrogates?","volume":"109","author":"Sarnat","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2012.04.008","article-title":"Associations between Short-Term Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide and Mortality in 17 Chinese Cities: The China Air Pollution and Health Effects Study (CAPES)","volume":"45","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00083406","article-title":"Air Pollution and Development of Asthma, Allergy and Infections in a Birth Cohort","volume":"29","author":"Brauer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100949","article-title":"Short-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Hospital Visits for IgE-Mediated Allergy: A Time-Stratified Case-Crossover Study in Southern China from 2012 to 2019","volume":"37","author":"Hou","year":"2021","journal-title":"eClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.114144","article-title":"Multi-Pollutant Air Pollution and Renal Health in Asian Children and Adolescents: An 18-Year Longitudinal Study","volume":"214","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0518-y","article-title":"Low Concentrations of Fine Particle Air Pollution and Mortality in the Canadian Community Health Survey Cohort","volume":"18","author":"Christidis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201303-0609OC","article-title":"Spatial Analysis of Air Pollution and Mortality in California","volume":"188","author":"Jerrett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/21\/14079\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:05:02Z","timestamp":1760144702000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/21\/14079"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph192114079"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph192114079","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]}}}