{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T11:44:39Z","timestamp":1781005479334,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]],"date-time":"2022-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Legal restrictions on vehicle engine exhaust gas emission control do not always go hand in hand with an actual reduction in the emissions of toxins into the atmosphere. Moreover, the methods currently used to measure exhaust gas emissions do not give unambiguous results on the impact of the tested gases on living organisms. The method used to assess the actual toxicity of gases, BAT-CELL Bio-Ambient-Tests using in vitro tests, takes into account synergistic interactions of individual components of a mixture of gases without the need to know its qualitative and quantitative composition and allows for determination of the actual toxicity of the gas composition. Using the BAT-CELL method, exhaust gases from passenger vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines complying with the Euro 3 and Euro 6 emission standards were tested. The results of toxicological tests were correlated with the results of chromatographic analysis. It was shown that diverse qualitative composition of the mixture of hydrocarbons determining the exhaust gases toxicity may decrease the percentage value of cell survival. Additionally, it was proven that the average survival of cells after exposure to exhaust gases from tested vehicles meeting the more restrictive Euro 6 standard was lower than for vehicles meeting the Euro 3 standard thus indicating the higher toxicity of exhaust gases from newer vehicles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,30]],"date-time":"2022-10-30T04:57:34Z","timestamp":1667105854000},"page":"14138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Assessment of the Actual Toxicity of Engine Exhaust Gas Emissions from Euro 3 and Euro 6 Compliant Vehicles with the BAT-CELL Method Using In Vitro Tests"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8361-7580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"K\u0119ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6098-2921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Janicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maciej","family":"Zawi\u015blak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justyna","family":"Molska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8358-8780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rados\u0142aw","family":"W\u0142ostowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adriana","family":"W\u0142\u00f3ka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"\u015awie\u015bciak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kacper","family":"Ostrowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GEO-3EM Research Centre, Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 13, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Ch\u0142opek, Z. (2012). Ekologiczne Aspekty Motoryzacji i Bezpiecze\u0144stwo Ruchu Drogowego, Politechnika Warszawska."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"83","article-title":"Application of bat-cell bio-ambient tests in exhaust gas emissions examinations for Euro 4 and Euro 6 combustion engines","volume":"17","author":"Janicka","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mach. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2020.102307","article-title":"Real-world gaseous and particle emissions of a Bi-fuel gasoline\/CNG Euro 6 passenger car","volume":"82","author":"Dimaratos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2018.12.042","article-title":"Real world emissions performance of heavy duty Euro VI diesel vehicles","volume":"201","author":"Grigoratos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"5","article-title":"Benzen. Dokumentacja proponowanych warto\u015bci dopuszczalnych poziom\u00f3w nara\u017cenia zawodowego","volume":"1","author":"Lebrecht","year":"2003","journal-title":"Podstawy I Metod. Oceny Sr. Pracy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2019.11.012","article-title":"Exhaust emissions generated under actual operating conditions from a hybrid vehicle and an electric one fitted with a range extender","volume":"78","author":"Lijewski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2019.111987","article-title":"Effectiveness of hybrid powertrains to reduce the fuel consumption and NOx emissions of a Euro 6d-temp diesel engine under real-life driving conditions","volume":"199","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.03.120","article-title":"Analysis of the high instantaneous NOx emissions from Euro 6 diesel passenger cars under real driving conditions","volume":"242","author":"Mera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.144","article-title":"A study on the CO2 and NOx emissions performance of Euro 6 diesel vehicles under various chassis dynamometer and on-road conditions including latest regulatory provisions","volume":"666","author":"Triantafyllopoulos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4274(02)00512-X","article-title":"Novel approaches for studying pulmonary toxicity in vitro","volume":"140\u2013141","author":"Aufderheide","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hufnagel, M., May, N., Wall, J., Wingert, N., Garcia-K\u00e4ufer, M., Arif, A., H\u00fcbner, C., Berger, C., M\u00fclhopt, S., and Baumann, W. (2021). Impact of Nanocomposite Combustion Aerosols on A549 Cells and a 3D Airway Model. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11071685"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"93","article-title":"In-vehicle toxicity measurements: In-vitro tests as a new method of toxicological estimation of car cabin atmosphere","volume":"7","author":"Janicka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. ECOpole"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Janicka, A. (2013). Ocena Toksyczno\u015bci Mikroatmosfery \u015arodowiska Wn\u0119trza Pojazdu Samochodowego, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wroc\u0142awskiej."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"91","article-title":"Toxicity evaluation of exhaust gases in diesel engines using toxicological methods","volume":"9","author":"Janicka","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pol. CIMAC"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2017.07.553","article-title":"Exhausts toxicity investigation of turbojet engine, fed with conventional and biofuel, performed with aid of BAT-CELL method","volume":"280","author":"Janicka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.06.1061","article-title":"Determination of proinflammatory cytokines level and NF-\u03baB activation level in the human lung cells line stimulated with essential oils for a vehicle ventilation system application","volume":"295","author":"Janicka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2015.08.1062","article-title":"New technology for toxicity investigation of vehicle indoor air with BAT-CELL","volume":"238","author":"Janicka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"71","article-title":"Analiza por\u00f3wnawcza toksyczno\u015bci mikroatmosfery wn\u0119trz kabin nowych pojazd\u00f3w. Nauki techniczne i in\u017cynieryjne","volume":"Volume 24","author":"Janicka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cz. 4 Badania i Rozw\u00f3j M\u0142odych Naukowc\u00f3w w Polsce\u2014Monografie"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"California Environmental Agency (2020, June 02). California Air Resources Board. [WWW Document], Available online: https:\/\/ww3.arb.ca.gov\/research\/resnotes\/notes\/94-22.htm."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"387","article-title":"Determination of volatile organic compounds for combustion engines compliant with Euro 4 and Euro 6","volume":"11","author":"Janicka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. ECOpole"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kruczy\u0144ski, S.W., Merkisz, J., and \u015al\u0119zak, M. (2019). Zanieczyszczenie Powietrza Spalinami Przez Transport Samochodowy, Wyd. Komunikacji i \u0141\u0105czno\u015bci."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Manahan, S.E. (2006). Toksykologia \u015arodowiska. Aspekty Chemiczne i Biochemiczne, Wyd. Naukowe PWN."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"139","article-title":"Cytotoksyczno\u015b\u0107 i mutagenno\u015b\u0107 preparat\u00f3w zawieraj\u0105cych domieszk\u0119 estru metylowego oleju rzepakowego","volume":"8","author":"Mendyka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.09.075","article-title":"In vitro cellular toxicity induced by extractable organic fractions of particles exhausted from urban combustion sources\u2014Role of PAHs","volume":"243","author":"Velali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.09.001","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced in vitro by solvent-extractable organic matter of size-segregated urban particulate matter","volume":"218","author":"Velali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2015.10.058","article-title":"Redox activity and in vitro bioactivity of the water-soluble fraction of urban particulate matter in relation to particle size and chemical composition","volume":"208","author":"Velali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2019.03.004","article-title":"Oxidative stress, DNA damage, and mutagenicity induced by the extractable organic matter of airborne particulates on bacterial models","volume":"104","author":"Velali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.06.096","article-title":"Toxic organic substances and marker compounds in size-segregated urban particulate matter\u2014Implications for involvement in the in vitro bioactivity of the extractable organic matter","volume":"230","author":"Besis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.12.061","article-title":"Assessment of lung cell toxicity of various gasoline engine exhausts using a versatile in vitro exposure system","volume":"235","author":"Bisig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.08.249","article-title":"In vitro lung toxicity of indoor PM10 from a stove fueled with different biomasses","volume":"649","author":"Marchetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.06.025","article-title":"Comparative toxicity and endocrine disruption potential of urban and rural atmospheric organic PM1 in JEG-3 human placental cells","volume":"230","author":"Grimalt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.01.115","article-title":"Respiratory hazard assessment of combined exposure to complete gasoline exhaust and respirable volcanic ash in a multicellular human lung model at the air-liquid interface","volume":"238","author":"Toma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2019.01.036","article-title":"Toxicological comparison of cigarette smoke and e-cigarette aerosol using a 3D in vitro human respiratory model","volume":"103","author":"Czekala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2019.02.009","article-title":"Mainstream smoke constituents and in vitro toxicity comparative analysis of 3R4F and 1R6F reference cigarettes","volume":"6","author":"Jaccard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2014.12.001","article-title":"Toxicological assessment of kretek cigarettes: Part 2: Kretek and American-blended cigarettes, smoke chemistry and in vitro toxicity","volume":"70","author":"Roemer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2017.11.009","article-title":"Chemical analysis and in vitro toxicological evaluation of aerosol from a novel tobacco vapor product: A comparison with cigarette smoke","volume":"92","author":"Takahashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2017.08.017","article-title":"Assessment of novel tobacco heating product THP1.0. Part 7: Comparative in vitro toxicological evaluation","volume":"93","author":"Thorne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anscip.2021.03.163","article-title":"162 Supplementing Megathyrsus maximus with seeds and whole pods of Enterolobium cyclocarpum reduced in vitro CH4 gas emissions","volume":"12","author":"Ogunbote","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Sci. Proc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2021.118570","article-title":"Re-assessing the toxicity of particles from biodiesel combustion: A quantitative analysis of in vitro studies","volume":"261","author":"Southern","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2020, June 02). Informacja Prasowa PZPM. [WWW Document]. Available online: https:\/\/www.pzpm.org.pl\/pl\/Rynekmotoryzacyjny\/Rejestracje-samochody-osobowe-i-dostawcze\/Rok-2019\/Grudzien-2019r."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"155","article-title":"Metoda oceny toksyczno\u015bci spalin silnikowych w aspekcie analizy rozwoju standard\u00f3w emisyjnych","volume":"Volume 26","year":"2021","journal-title":"Raporty Wydzia\u0142u Mechanicznego Politechniki Wroc\u0142awskiej"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"ATCC\u2014Global Biological Resource Center (2022, September 07). [WWW Document]. Available online: https:\/\/www.atcc.org\/products\/ccl-1."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Janicka, A. (2008). Emisja Zwi\u0105zk\u00f3w Toksycznych z Silnika o Zap\u0142onie Samoczynnym z Katalizatorem Wewn\u0119trznym, Instytut In\u017cynierii Ochrony \u015arodowiska, Politechnika Wroc\u0142awska. Raport Serii PRE nr 3\/2008."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.19206\/CE-117054","article-title":"DPF regeneration with high sulfur fuel","volume":"148","author":"Czerwinski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Combust. Engines"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.19206\/CE-2016-327","article-title":"Investigations of emissions of reactive substances NO2 and NH3 from passenger cars","volume":"166","author":"Czerwinski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Combust. Engines"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.19206\/CE-117026","article-title":"Conditions of NO2 -production in catalyzed DPF-systems","volume":"150","author":"Czerwinski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Combust. Engines"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"575","article-title":"Research on the ammonia concentration in the exhaust gas of the selfignition engines","volume":"154","author":"Gis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Combust. Engines"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"133","article-title":"Zastosowanie selektywnej redukcji NOx amoniakiem (NH3- SCR) do pojazd\u00f3w nap\u0119dzanych silnikiem z zap\u0142onem samoczynnym","volume":"6","author":"Kojtych","year":"2004","journal-title":"Motrol. Motoryz. I Energetyka Rolnictwa."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/21\/14138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:05:33Z","timestamp":1760144733000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/21\/14138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph192114138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph192114138","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,29]]}}}