{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T22:32:37Z","timestamp":1792017157810,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,16]],"date-time":"2022-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668556800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Education and Science for the University of Agriculture in Krak\u00f3w","award":["030007-D014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["030007-D014"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To improve the environmental sustainability of cleanup activities of contaminated sites there is a need to develop technologies that minimize soil and habitat disturbances. Cleanup technologies, such as bioremediation, are based on biological products and processes, and they are important for the future of our planet. We studied the potential of \u03b3-poly glutamic acid (PGA) as a natural component of biofilm produced by Bacillus sp. to be used for the decomposition of petroleum products, such as heavy naphtha (N), lubricating oil (O), and grease (G). The study aimed to assess the impact of the use of different concentrations of PGA on the degradation process of various fractions of petroleum hydrocarbons (PH) and its effect on bacterial population growth in harsh conditions of PH contamination. In laboratory conditions, four treatments of PGA with each of the petroleum products (N, O, and G) were tested: PGA0 (reference), PGA1 (1% PGA), PGA1B (1% PGA with Bacillus\u00a0licheniformis), and PGA10 (10% PGA). After 7, 28, 56, and 112 days of the experiment, the percentage yield extraction, hydrocarbon mass loss, geochemical ratios, pH, electrical conductivity, and microorganisms survival were determined. We observed an increase in PH removal, reflected as a higher amount of extraction yield (growing with time and reaching about 11% in G) and loss of hydrocarbon mass (about 4% in O and G) in all treatments of the PGA compared to the reference. The positive degradation impact was intensive until around day 60. The PH removal stimulation by PGA was also reflected by changes in the values of geochemical ratios, which indicated that the highest rate of degradation was at the initial stage of the process. In general, for the stimulation of PH removal, using a lower (1%) concentration of PGA resulted in better performance than a higher concentration (10%). The PH removal facilitated by PGA is related to the anionic homopoliamid structure of the molecule and its action as a surfactant, which leads to the formation of micelles and the gradual release of PH absorbed in the zeolite carrier. Moreover, the protective properties of PGA against the extinction of bacteria under high concentrations of PH were identified. Generally, the \u03b3-PGA biopolymer helps to degrade the hydrocarbon pollutants and stabilize the environment suitable for microbial degraders development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192215066","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,16]],"date-time":"2022-11-16T02:27:34Z","timestamp":1668565654000},"page":"15066","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Hydrocarbon Degradation and Microbial Survival Improvement in Response to \u03b3-Polyglutamic Acid Application"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ewelina","family":"Zaj\u0105c","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Reclamation and Environmental Development, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Land Surveying, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8270-9384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika J.","family":"Fabia\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, 60 B\u0119dzi\u0144ska Street, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"El\u017cbieta","family":"J\u0119drszczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Faculty of Biotechnology and Horticulture, University of Agriculture in Krakow, al. 29 Listopada 45, 31-425 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6059-8663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Skalski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (EEA) (2022, August 10). 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