{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T13:18:31Z","timestamp":1787923111448,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]],"date-time":"2022-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668988800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The \u201cinfodemic\u201d is one of the main obstacles in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to face it, health literacy (HL) is essential since it allows for knowledge about COVID-19 and the practice of preventive measures to be fostered. This is especially relevant in university students due to their idiosyncrasy. This study aims to evaluate the level of HL related to COVID-19 (HLC), risk perception, misinformation, and the attitudes and behaviors adopted to prevent the spread of coronavirus in Spanish university students. An online questionnaire was administered to 499 Spanish university students. The HLC index presented a mean of 33.89 out of 50; a total of 63.8% had an inadequate level of HLC. They practiced a mean of 7.54 out of 9 preventive behaviors, and the mean knowledge score was 10.40 out of 13. The HLC showed significantly different scores for the degree, the practice of preventive measures, and some sources of information. The level of HL correlates with the adoption of preventive measures. The higher the severity and perceived susceptibility, the more preventive measures are taken by the students. Therefore, there is a need to strengthen the HL skills of university students and address the dissemination of misinformation. Although caution should be taken when generalizing these results due to the limitations inherent within a cross-sectional study and the convenience sampling, our results can guide the establishment of health education strategies and policies for the management of the infodemic in pandemic situations, according to this target population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192215370","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T03:02:16Z","timestamp":1669086136000},"page":"15370","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Health Literacy, Misinformation, Self-Perceived Risk and Fear, and Preventive Measures Related to COVID-19 in Spanish University Students"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6309-4997","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pilar","family":"Bas-Sarmiento","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Cadiz, University Institute of Research in Social Sustainable Development (INDESS), Institute of Research and Innovation in Biomedical Sciences of the Province of Cadiz, INiBICA, 11009 Cadiz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Jos\u00e9","family":"Lamas-Toranzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Andalusian Health System, 11207 Cadiz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3961-2250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Guti\u00e9rrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Cadiz, University Institute of Research in Social Sustainable Development (INDESS), Institute of Research and Innovation in Biomedical Sciences of the Province of Cadiz, INiBICA, 11009 Cadiz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9166-3285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miriam","family":"Poza-M\u00e9ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, University of Cadiz, University Institute of Research in Social Sustainable Development (INDESS), 11009 Cadiz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, September 16). Weekly Epidemiological Update on COVID-19\u201414 September 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---14-september-2022."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bin Naeem, S., and Kamel Boulos, M.N. (2021). COVID-19 Misinformation Online and Health Literacy: A Brief Overview. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18158091"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30461-X","article-title":"How to Fight an Infodemic","volume":"395","author":"Zarocostas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Rothkopf, D.J. (2021, April 15). When the Buzz Bites Back. Available online: http:\/\/www1.udel.edu\/globalagenda\/2004\/student\/readings\/infodemic.html."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"S162","article-title":"Information Overload and Infodemic in the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"70","author":"Rathore","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pak. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2020.103644","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic, infodemic and the role of eHealth literacy","volume":"108","author":"Chong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, November 06). Munich Security Conference. Director-General, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/dg\/speeches\/detail\/munich-security-conference."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Brennen, J.S., Simon, F., Howard, P.N., and Nielsen, R.K. (2022, November 06). Types, Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation. Available online: https:\/\/reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk\/types-sources-and-claims-covid-19-misinformation."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e249","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(20)30086-4","article-title":"COVID-19: Health Literacy Is an Underestimated Problem","volume":"5","author":"Paakkari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Health literacy as a social vaccine in the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"daab197","author":"Okan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sentell, T., Vamos, S., and Okan, O. (2020). Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Health Literacy Research Around the World: More Important Than Ever in a Time of COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17093010"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, K.J., Park, N.L., Heo, S.Y., Jung, S.H., Lee, Y.B., and Hwang, J.H. (2021). Effect of e-health literacy on COVID-19 Infection-preventive behaviors of undergraduate students majoring in healthcare. Healthcare, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare9050573"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25600","DOI":"10.2196\/25600","article-title":"Associations between health literacy, ehealth literacy, and covid-19\u2013related health behaviors among Chinese college students: Cross-sectional online study","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30342012","DOI":"10.17061\/phrp30342012","article-title":"Health literacy and disparities in COVID-19\u2013related knowledge, Binattitudes, beliefs and behaviours in Australia","volume":"30","author":"McCaffery","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Okan, O., Bollweg, T.M., Bauer, U., Hurrelmann, K., Janner, C., and Schaeffer, D. (2021). Corona-Specific Health Literacy in Germany: Second Survey of the HLS-COVID-19 Trend Study, Bielefeld University. English Summary Report; Interdisciplinary Centre for Health Literacy Research."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patil, U., Kostareva, U., Hadley, M., Manganello, J.A., Okan, O., Dadaczynski, K., Massey, P.M., Agner, J., and Sentell, T. (2021). Health Literacy, Digital Health Literacy, and COVID-19 Pandemic Attitudes and Behaviors in U.S. College Students: Implications for Interventions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18063301"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okan, O., Bollweg, T.M., Berens, E.M., Hurrelmann, K., Bauer, U., and Schaeffer, D. (2020). Coronavirus-Related Health Literacy: A Cross-Sectional Study in Adults during the COVID-19 Infodemic in Germany. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3631299"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bak, C.K., Krammer, J.\u00d8., Dadaczynski, K., Orkan, O., von Seelen, J., Prinds, C., S\u00f8bjerg, L.M., and Klakk, H. (2022). Digital Health Literacy and Information-Seeking Behavior among University College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study from Denmark. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19063676"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boczkowski, P., Mitchelstein, E., and Matassi, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Incidental news: How young people consume news on social media. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hilton Waikoloa Village, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2017.217"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.7146\/njlis.v2i1.125220","article-title":"Dealing with the COVID-19 infodemic: Understanding young people\u2019s emotions and coping mechanisms in Finland and the United States","volume":"2","author":"Karim","year":"2021","journal-title":"NJLIS"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Nielsen, R., Fletcher, R., Newman, N., Brennen, J., and Howard, P. (2022, October 28). Navigating the \u2018Infodemic\u2019: How People in Six Countries Access and Rate News and Information about Coronavirus. Available online: https:\/\/reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk\/sites\/default\/files\/2020-04\/Navigating%20the%20Coronavirus%20Infodemic%20FINAL.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/hir.12320","article-title":"An exploration of how fake news is taking over social media and putting public health at risk","volume":"38","author":"Naeem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Inf. Libr. J."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Bruno Kessler Foundation (2022, November 08). COVID-19 and Fake News in the Social Media. Available online: https:\/\/www.fbk.eu\/en\/press-releases\/covid-19-and-fake-news-in-the-social-media."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22205","DOI":"10.2196\/22205","article-title":"Associations between COVID-19 misinformation exposure and belief with COVID-19 knowledge and preventive behaviors: Cross-sectional online study","volume":"22","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17187","DOI":"10.2196\/17187","article-title":"Prevalence of Health Misinformation on Social Media: Systematic Review","volume":"23","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e78","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2021.36.e78","article-title":"COVID-19 Vaccination and the Challenge of Infodemic and Disinformation","volume":"36","author":"Farooq","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Korean Med."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, October 28). Social Media & COVID-19: A Global Study of Digital Crisis Interaction among Gen Z and Millennials. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/feature-stories\/detail\/social-media-covid-19-a-global-study-of-digital-crisis-interaction-among-gen-z-and-millennials."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, September 16). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Advice for the Public. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/advice-for-public."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, October 28). Infodemic Management: An Overview of Infodemic Management during COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/346652\/9789240035966-eng.pdf?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"181","article-title":"Why health promotion matters to the COVID-19 pandemic, and vice versa","volume":"1","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1093\/heapro\/daaa040","article-title":"Critical health literacy and the COVID-19 crisis","volume":"35","author":"Abel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"95","article-title":"The enigma of health literacy and COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"85","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3285","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-020-05980-2","article-title":"Changes in COVID-19 knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, and preparedness among high-risk adults from the onset to the acceleration phase of the US outbreak","volume":"35","author":"Bailey","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Impact of Health Literacy on Fear of Covid-19, Protective Behavior, and Conspiracy Beliefs: University Students\u2019 Perspective","volume":"4620","author":"Shaukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Libr. Philos. Pract. (E-J.)"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riiser, K., Helseth, S., Haraldstad, K., Torbj\u00f8rnsen, A., and Richardsen, K.R. (2020). Adolescents\u2019 health literacy, health protective measures, and health-related quality of life during the Covid-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.08.20148916"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.12.023","article-title":"Health literacy, preventive COVID 19 behaviour and adherence to chronic disease treatment during lockdown among patients registered at primary health facility in urban Jodhpur, Rajasthan","volume":"15","author":"Gautam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Considerations of Low Health Literacy during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Forsythe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Didact."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003323","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2020-003323","article-title":"Media trust and infection mitigating behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00f8rensen, K., Van Den Broucke, S., Fullam, J., Doyle, G., Pelikan, J., Slonska, Z., and Brand, H. (2012). Health Literacy and Public Health: A Systematic Review and Integration of Definitions and Models. BMC Public Health, 12, Available online: http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/1471-2458\/12\/80.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-12-80"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"4708","article-title":"Health Literacy of University Students in Covid-19 Pandemic and Infodemic: A Pakistani Perspective","volume":"2021","author":"Shaukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Libr. Philos. Pract."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776829","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.776829","article-title":"Associations of COVID-19 Risk Perception, eHealth Literacy, and Protective Behaviors Among Chinese College Students Following Vaccination: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"9","author":"Qin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaw\u0142owska, E., Staszewski, R., Zawiejska, A., Gierna\u015b, B., and Domaradzki, J. (2022). Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Health Behaviours and the Literacy of Future Healthcare Professionals. Healthcare, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10091723"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Ilona Kickbusch, I., Pelikan, J.M., Apfel, F., and Tsouros, A.D. (2013). Health Literacy\u2014The Solid Facts, WHO Regional Office for Europe. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/128703\/e96854.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1177\/109019817400200404","article-title":"The health belief model: Origins and correlates in psychological theory","volume":"2","author":"Maiman","year":"1974","journal-title":"Health Educ. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1177\/109019817400200405","article-title":"The Health Belief Model and Preventive Health Behavior","volume":"2","author":"Rosenstock","year":"1974","journal-title":"Health Educ. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"353207","article-title":"Factors affecting intention among students to Be vaccinated against A\/H1N1 Influenza: A health belief model approach factors","volume":"2011","author":"Shahrabani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"1389","article-title":"Using health belief model constructs to examine differences in adherence to Pap test recommendations among Iranian women","volume":"18","author":"Karimy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. APJCP"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1080\/07359680802619834","article-title":"Factors influencing healthy eating habits among college students: An application of the health belief model","volume":"26","author":"Deshpande","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Market. Q."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irigoyen-Camacho, M.E., Velazquez-Alva, M.C., Zepeda-Zepeda, M.A., Cabrer-Rosales, M.F., Lazarevich, I., and Casta\u00f1o-Seiquer, A. (2020). Effect of Income Level and Perception of Susceptibility and Severity of COVID-19 on Stay-at-Home Preventive Behavior in a Group of Older Adults in Mexico City. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17207418"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.34172\/hpp.2021.10","article-title":"Role of community-based measures in adherence to self-protective behaviors during first wave of COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia","volume":"11","author":"Zahra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Promot. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutta, B., Peng, M.H., Chen, C.C., and Sun, S.L. (2022). Role of Infodemics on Social Media in the Development of People\u2019s Readiness to Follow COVID-19 Preventive Measures. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19031347"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2019.00286","article-title":"Factors Influencing the Adoption of Online Health Consultation Services: The Role of Subjective Norm, Trust, Perceived Benefit, and Offline Habit","volume":"7","author":"Gong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dss.2013.01.029","article-title":"Untangling the antecedents of initial trust in web-based health information: The roles of argument quality, source expertise, and user perceptions of information quality and risk","volume":"55","author":"Yi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Decis. Support. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1177\/1460458218796660","article-title":"Examining factors affecting patients trust in online healthcare services in China: The moderating role of the purpose of use","volume":"25","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Inform. J."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"914","article-title":"Assessing COVID-19 preventive behaviours using the health belief model: A Sri Lankan study","volume":"16","author":"Mahindarathne","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Taibah Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"358e362","article-title":"Gender variations in the psychological factors as defined by the extended health belief model of oral hygiene behaviors","volume":"127","author":"Zetu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia\u2014Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-020-00776-2","article-title":"Assessing preventive health behaviors from COVID-19: A cross sectional study with health belief model in Golestan Province, Northern of Iran","volume":"9","author":"Shahnazi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjog.2018.10.003","article-title":"Using the health belief model to predict those seeking treatment for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder among premenopausal women","volume":"57","author":"Chou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Taiwan. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Health Institute Carlos III, University of Murcia, University of C\u00e1diz, Ministry of Health, and WHO (2022, September 16). Monitoring Knowledge and Attitudes of the Population in the Current Coronavirus in Spain (COSMO-SPAIN): World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/portalcne.isciii.es\/cosmo-spain."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Betsch, C., Wieler, L., Bosnjak, M., Ramharter, M., Stollorz, V., Omer, S., Korn, L., Sprengholz, P., Felgendreff, L., and Eitze, S. (2020). Germany COVID-19 Snapshot MOnitoring (COSMO Germany): Monitoring Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, Preventive Behaviours, and Public Trust in the Current Coronavirus Outbreak in Germany. PsychArchives."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Karadag, F., Aslan, S., Budakoglu, I., Kucukkarapinar, M., Yay, A., and Ucar, O. (2020). Turkey COVID-19 Snapshot Monitoring (COSMO Turkey): Monitoring Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, Preventive Behaviours, and Public Trust in the Current Coronavirus Outbreak in Turkey. PsychArchives."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Privy Council Office of Canada (2020). Canada COVID-19 Snapshot MOnitoring (COSMO Canada): Monitoring Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, Preventive Behaviours, and Public Trust in the Current Coronavirus Outbreak in Canada. PsychArchives."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2020.105855","article-title":"Survey Data of COVID-19-Related Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices among Indonesian Undergraduate Students","volume":"31","author":"Saefi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Data Br."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s40267-020-00737-7","article-title":"Knowledge, Attitude and Preventive Practices Related to COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Study in Two Pakistani University Populations","volume":"36","author":"Salman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drugs Ther. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10900-020-00859-z","article-title":"Cross-Sectional Study on Awareness and Knowledge of COVID-19 Among Senior Pharmacy Students","volume":"46","author":"Hamza","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00253","article-title":"Medical Students and COVID-19: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Precautionary Measures. A Descriptive Study from Jordan","volume":"8","author":"Khasawneh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (2022, September 19). WHO Tool for Behavioural Insights on COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/en\/health-topics\/health-emergencies\/coronavirus-covid-19\/publications-and-technical-guidance\/who-tool-for-behavioural-insights-on-covid-19."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (2020). COVID-19 Snapshot Monitoring (COSMO Standard): Monitoring Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, Preventive Behaviours, and Public Trust in the Current Coronavirus Outbreak\u2014World Health Organization Standard Protocol, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1186\/s12955-022-02050-5","article-title":"Measuring COVID-19 health literacy: Validation of the COVID-19 HL questionnaire in Spain","volume":"20","author":"Forjaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Qual. Life Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00f8rensen, K., Van Den Broucke, S., Pelikan, J.M., Fullam, J., Doyle, G., Slonska, Z., Kondilis, B., Stoffels, V., Osborne, R.H., and Brand, H. (2013). Measuring Health Literacy in Populations: Illuminating the Design and Development Process of the European Health Literacy Survey Questionnaire (HLS-EU-Q). BMC Public Health, 13, Available online: http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/1471-2458\/13\/948.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-948"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"34","article-title":"Measuring Health Literacy in General Populations: Primary Findings from the HLS-EU Consortium\u2019s Health Literacy Assessment Effort","volume":"240","author":"Pelikan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stud. Health Technol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Medical Association (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. JAMA, 310, 2191\u20132194.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281053"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e925877-1","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.925877","article-title":"Factors Affecting Infection Control Behaviors to Prevent COVID-19: An Online Survey of Nursing Students in Anhui, China in March and April 2020","volume":"26","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ros\u00e1rio, R., Martins, M.R.O., Augusto, C., Silva, M.J., Martins, S., Duarte, A., Fronteira, I., Ramos, N., Okan, O., and Dadaczynski, K. (2020). Associations between Covid-19-Related Digital Health Literacy and Online Information-Seeking Behavior among Portuguese University Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17238987"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24097","DOI":"10.2196\/24097","article-title":"Digital Health Literacy and Web-Based Information-Seeking Behaviors of University Students in Germany during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-Sectional Survey Study","volume":"23","author":"Dadaczynski","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrdelja, M., Vrbov\u0161ek, S., Klop\u010di\u010d, V., Dadaczynski, K., and Okan, O. (2021). Facing the Growing COVID-19 Infodemic: Digital Health Literacy and Information-Seeking Behaviour of University Students in Slovenia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18168507"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2022.2065745","article-title":"Effects of Health Literacy in the Fight Against the COVID-19 Infodemic: The Case of Japan","volume":"37","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Commun."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25042","DOI":"10.2196\/25042","article-title":"Relationship between Coronavirus-Related eHealth Literacy and COVID-19 Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices among US Adults: Web-Based Survey Study","volume":"23","author":"An","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, H.T.T., Nguyen, M.H., Pham, T.T.M., Kim, G.B., Nguyen, H.T., Nguyen, N.M., Dam, H.T.B., Duong, T.H., Nguyen, Y.H., and Do, T.T. (2022). Predictors of eHealth Literacy and Its Associations with Preventive Behaviors, Fear of COVID-19, Anxiety, and Depression among Undergraduate Nursing Students: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19073766"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duplaga, M. (2022). The Roles of Health and e-Health Literacy, Conspiracy Beliefs and Political Sympathy in the Adherence to Preventive Measures Recommended during the Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19148346"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/22\/15370\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:22:43Z","timestamp":1760145763000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/22\/15370"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph192215370"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph192215370","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]]}}}