{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T03:55:01Z","timestamp":1769572501194,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monkeypox is a zoonotic infectious disease belonging to the orthopoxvirus family that has predominantly occurred in West and Central Africa since it was initially discovered in 1958. In May 2022, a global outbreak of monkeypox began to occur on an international scale, with case numbers still rising as this review is being written. This mini review sought to analyze the existing literature on monkeypox published from 2017 onward to provide epidemiological context to current outbreaks. PubMed and Google Scholar databases were used to gather both peer-reviewed and grey literature on the routes of transmission, case definitions, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, management, prevention, vaccination, and epidemiology of monkeypox. Epidemiological studies indicate that the age of onset of monkeypox has increased over time. Antivirals, such as Tecovirimat and Brincidofovir, are recommended to manage confirmed cases of monkeypox. Although mass vaccination is not currently recommended, the smallpox vaccine can be used as a preventative measure for at-risk groups, such as men who have sex with men and frontline healthcare workers. Further peer-reviewed research addressing animal reservoirs and sexual transmission dynamics is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192315684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T04:58:50Z","timestamp":1669784330000},"page":"15684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Monkeypox: A Mini-Review on the Globally Emerging Orthopoxvirus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Amy","family":"Evans","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1229-1920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bara\u2019 Abdallah","family":"AlShurman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5275-0706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hibah","family":"Sehar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2486-4781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahid Ahmad","family":"Butt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wem.2021.08.003","article-title":"The disease ecology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, management, prevention, and control of increasing human infections with animal orthopoxviruses","volume":"32","author":"Diaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2208860","article-title":"Monkeypox","volume":"387","author":"Gessain","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, June 23). How it Spreads, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/transmission.html."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunge, E.M., Hoet, B., Chen, L., Lienert, F., Weidenthaler, H., Baer, L.R., and Steffen, R. (2022). The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox\u2014A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800509","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.38.1800509","article-title":"Two cases of monkeypox imported to the United Kingdom, September 2018","volume":"23","author":"Vaughan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00228-6","article-title":"Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: A retrospective observational study in the UK","volume":"22","author":"Adler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30294-4","article-title":"Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017\u20132018: A clinical and epidemiological report","volume":"19","author":"Aruna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa559","article-title":"Exportation of monkeypox virus from the African continent","volume":"225","author":"Mauldin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, August 03). Multi-Country Monkeypox Outbreak: Situation Update. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/disease-outbreak-news\/item\/2022-DON396."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, November 17). 2022 Monkeypox Outbreak Global Map, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/response\/2022\/world-map.html."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, August 03). WHO Director-General Declares the Ongoing Monkeypox Outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/europe\/news\/item\/23-07-2022-who-director-general-declares-the-ongoing-monkeypox-outbreak-a-public-health-event-of-international-concern."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00241","article-title":"Emergence of Monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans","volume":"6","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beer, E.M., and Rao, V.B. (2019). A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLOS Negl. Trop. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007791"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1003.030878","article-title":"Monkeypox transmission and pathogenesis in prairie dogs","volume":"10","author":"Guarner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, June 23). Signs and Symptoms, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/symptoms.html."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falendysz, E.A., Lopera, J.G., Doty, J.B., Nakazawa, Y., Crill, C., Lorenzsonn, F., Kalemba, L.S., Ronderos, M.D., Mejia, A., and Malekani, J.M. (2017). Characterization of Monkeypox virus infection in African rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.). PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005809"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quiner, C.A., Moses, C., Monroe, B.P., Nakazawa, Y., Doty, J.B., Hughes, C.M., McCollum, A.M., Ibata, S., Malekani, J., and Okitolonda, E. (2017). Presumptive risk factors for monkeypox in rural communities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168664"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"95","article-title":"Another epidemic in the shadow of Covid 19 pandemic: A review of Monkeypox","volume":"6","author":"Okyay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eurasian J. Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, August 03). Monkeypox. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/monkeypox."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, July 13). Preparation and Collection of Specimens, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/clinicians\/prep-collection-specimens.html#:~:text=Real%2Dtime%20PCR%20may%20be,performed%20prior%20to%20collecting%20specimens."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Public Health Agency of Canada (2022, July 13). Monkeypox: Symptoms and Management, Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/public-health\/services\/diseases\/monkeypox\/symptoms-management.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01742-y","article-title":"Prevention and treatment of Monkeypox","volume":"82","author":"Rizk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, July 13). Prevention, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/prevention.html#:~:text=Avoid%20contact%20with%20animals%20that,be%20at%20risk%20for%20infection."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, July 13). Monitoring People Who Have Been Exposed. CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/poxvirus\/monkeypox\/clinicians\/monitoring.html."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Health Canada (2022, July 13). Monkeypox: Risks, Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/public-health\/services\/diseases\/monkeypox\/risks.html."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"The World Health Organization (2022, November 17). Vaccines and Immunization for Monkeypox. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-MPX-Immunization#:~:text=Mass%20vaccination%20is%20not%20required,to%20prevent%20onset%20of%20disease."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7122e1","article-title":"Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox vaccine, live, nonreplicating) for preexposure vaccination of persons at risk for occupational exposure to orthopoxviruses: Recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices\u2014United States, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Rao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022, July 27). Multi-Country Outbreak of Monkeypox. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.who.int\/media\/docs\/default-source\/2021-dha-docs\/20220706_monkeypox_external_sitrep_final.pdf?sfvrsn=1b580b3d_4&download=true."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.104509","article-title":"Monkeypox: A potential pandemic at door of Asia","volume":"81","author":"Sah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2022, July 17). Monkeypox Multi-Country Outbreak, Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/Monkeypox-multi-country-outbreak.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2207323","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries\u2014April\u2013June 2022","volume":"387","author":"Thornhill","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez, I., Garc\u00eda-Grimshaw, M., Ceballos-Liceaga, S.E., Toledo-Salinas, C., Carbajal-Sandoval, G., Sosa-Laso, L., Garc\u00eda-Rodr\u00edguez, G., Cort\u00e9s-Alcal\u00e1, R., de la Torre, A., and Fragoso-Saavedra, S. (Lancet Reg. Health Am., 2022). Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of patients with human monkeypox infection in Mexico: A nationwide observational study, Lancet Reg. Health Am., in press.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4211417"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01436-2","article-title":"Clinical presentation and virological assessment of confirmed human monkeypox virus cases in Spain: A prospective observational cohort study","volume":"400","author":"Alemany","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e072410","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2022-072410","article-title":"Clinical features and novel presentations of human monkeypox in a central London centre during the 2022 outbreak: Descriptive case series","volume":"378","author":"Patel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00513-8","article-title":"INMI Monkeypox Study Group. Monkeypox virus isolation from a semen sample collected in the early phase of infection in a patient with prolonged seminal viral shedding","volume":"22","author":"Lapa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/23\/15684\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:26:42Z","timestamp":1760146002000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/23\/15684"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph192315684"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph192315684","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]}}}