{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T14:02:29Z","timestamp":1790344949591,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Basque Government","award":["PRE_2019_1_0164"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRE_2019_1_0164"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Psychometric network analysis provides a novel statistical approach allowing researchers to model clusters of related symptoms as a dynamic system. This study applied network analysis to investigate the patterns of somatic, cognitive, and affective neurobehavioral symptoms in an international sample of Spanish-speaking individuals with a history of COVID-19 positivity and non-COVID controls; (2) methods: the sample (n = 1093) included 650 adults from 26 countries who reported having previously tested positive for COVID-19 (COVID+) through a viral and\/or antigen test (average of 147 days since diagnosis). The control group (COVID\u2212) was comprised of 443 adults from 20 countries who had completed the survey prior to the COVID-19 pandemic; (3) results: relative to the COVID\u2212 network, the COVID+ network was very well-connected, such that each neurobehavioral symptom was positively connected to the network. The organize-to-headache and dizzy-to-balance connections in the COVID+ network were stronger than in the COVID\u2212 network. The hearing, numbness, and tense symptoms were more central to the COVID+ network with the latter connected to the sleep, fatigue, and frustrated symptoms. The COVID\u2212 network was largely disjointed, with most of the somatosensory symptoms forming their own cluster with no connections to other symptom groups and fatigue not being connected to any other symptom. The cognitive and affective symptoms in the COVID\u2212 network were also largely connected to symptoms from within their own groups; (4) conclusions: These findings suggest that many of the long-term neurobehavioral symptoms of COVID-19 form a discernable network and that headaches, frustration, hearing problems, forgetfulness, and tension are the most central symptoms. Cognitive and behavioral rehabilitation strategies targeting these central symptom network features may hold promise to help fracture the lingering symptom network of COVID-19.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20010183","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T02:09:03Z","timestamp":1671761343000},"page":"183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Network Analysis of Neurobehavioral Symptom Patterns in an International Sample of Spanish-Speakers with a History of COVID-19 and Controls"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Paul B.","family":"Perrin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Data Science, University of Virginia, 400 Brandon Ave., Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, 485 McCormick Rd., Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA"},{"name":"Central Virginia Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1201 Broad Rock Blvd, Richmond, VA 23249, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Ramos-Usuga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Research Doctorate Program, University of the Basque Country, Barrio Sarriena, s\/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain"},{"name":"Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Cruces Plaza, 48903 Barakaldo, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel J.","family":"West","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Virginia State University, 1 Hayden St., Petersburg, VA 23803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2293-7614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kritzia","family":"Merced","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Virginia Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1201 Broad Rock Blvd, Richmond, VA 23249, USA"},{"name":"Departments of Psychology and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Virginia Commonwealth University, 907 Floyd Ave., Richmond, VA 23284, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel W.","family":"Klyce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Virginia Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1201 Broad Rock Blvd, Richmond, VA 23249, USA"},{"name":"Departments of Psychology and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Virginia Commonwealth University, 907 Floyd Ave., Richmond, VA 23284, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony H.","family":"Lequerica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Traumatic Brain Injury Research, Kessler Foundation, 120 Eagle Rock Avenue, East Hanover, NJ 07936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8305-8720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laiene","family":"Olabarrieta-Landa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Sciences Department, Public University of Navarre (UPNA), Catalu\u00f1a, s\/n, 31006 Pamplona, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), 31008 Pamplona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2770-2104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabet","family":"Alzueta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiona C.","family":"Baker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA"},{"name":"Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stella","family":"Iacovides","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2828-8504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar","family":"Cortes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation and Human Performance, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Pl, New York, NY 10029, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7184-8311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Arango-Lasprilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Psychology and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Virginia Commonwealth University, 907 Floyd Ave., Richmond, VA 23284, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113426","article-title":"How and why patients made Long Covid","volume":"268","author":"Callard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. 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