{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T17:42:38Z","timestamp":1789753358039,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: \u2018Slope\u2019 refers to the position faced by golfers on the course. Research on the recruitment strategies of thoracolumbar erector spinae during golf swings on different slopes may help us to understand some underlying mechanisms of lower back pain. (2) Purpose: The purpose of the present study is to assess electromyography (EMG) patterns of the erector spinae muscles (ES) and the kinematics of the trunk and swing parameters while performing golf swings on three different ground slopes: (1) no slope where the ball is level with the feet (BLF), (2) a slope where the ball is above the feet (BAF), and (3) a slope where the ball is below the feet (BBF). Furthermore, the present study evaluates the effect of slope on the kinematics of the trunk, the X-factor angle, and the hitting parameters. (3) Methods: Eight right-handed recreational male golfers completed five swings using a seven-iron for each ground slope. Surface electromyograms from the left and right sides of the ES thoracolumbar region (T8 and L3 on the spinous process side) were evaluated. Each golf swing was divided into five phases. Kinematics of the shoulder, trunk, and spine were evaluated, and the ball speed, swing speed, carry, smash factor, launch angle, and apex were measured using Caddie SC300. (3) Results: The muscle activity of the BAF and BBF slopes was significantly lower than that of the BLF slope during the early follow-through phase of the thoracic ES on the lead side (i.e., left side) and during the acceleration and early follow-through phases of the lumbar ES on the lead side. The lead and trail side (i.e., right side) lumbar ES were more active during acceleration than the thoracic ES. Additionally, the trends of the lead and trail sides of the thoracolumbar regions on the three slopes were found to be the same across the five phases. Trunk angle and X-factor angles had no significant differences in address, top of backswing, or ball impact. The maximum separation angles of the X-factor appeared in the early phase of the downswing for all the three slopes. Regarding smash factor and launch angle, there were no significant differences between the three slopes. The ball speed, swing speed, carry, and apex were higher on BLF than on BAF and BBF slopes. (4) Conclusion: The findings suggest that amateur golfers face different slopes with altered muscle recruitment strategies. Specifically, during the acceleration phase of the golf swing, the BAF and the BBF slopes, compared with the BLF slope, significantly underactivated the lead side thoracolumbar erector spinae muscles, thereby increasing the risk of back injury. Changes in muscle activity during critical periods may affect neuromuscular deficits in high-handicap players and may have implications for the understanding and development of golf-related lower back pain. In addition, the X-factor angle was not affected by the slope, however, it can be found that the hitting parameters on the BLF slope are more dominant than on the other slopes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T07:55:39Z","timestamp":1673250939000},"page":"1176","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Effects of Ground Slopes on Erector Spinae Muscle Activities and Characteristics of Golf Swing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Bairan","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Putian University, Putian 351100, China"},{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7025-1812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junsig","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sports Medicine, KyungHee University, Youngin 17104, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chaojie","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhe","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaying","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sang-Cheul","family":"Nam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ze","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jae-Kyun","family":"Ryu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Coaching, KyungHee University, Youngin 17104, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9468-2687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youngsuk","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Coaching, KyungHee University, Youngin 17104, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1260\/174795408785024225","article-title":"Approach shot accuracy as a performance indicator for US PGA Tour golf professionals","volume":"3","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. 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