{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T23:30:24Z","timestamp":1790983824565,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]],"date-time":"2023-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673308800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"VIT management"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In developing countries, there is more concern for Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) by public health professionals due to its catastrophic effects on the elderly. Early detection of this disease helps in starting the therapy soon and slows down the progression of the disease. Imaging techniques are considered to be the best solutions for its detection. Brain imaging was initially used to diagnose AD. Different techniques for identifying protein accumulation in the nervous system, a sign of Alzheimer\u2019s disease, are identified by MRI imaging. Although they were initially attributed to cortical dysfunction, visual system impairments in Alzheimer\u2019s patients were also found in the early 1970s. Several non-invasive approaches reported for screening, prevention, and therapy were unsuccessful. It is vitally necessary to develop new diagnostic methods in order to accurately identify patients who are in the early stages of this disease. It would be wonderful to have a quick, non-invasive, affordable, and easily scalable Alzheimer\u2019s disease screening. Researchers may be able to identify biomarkers for Alzheimer\u2019s disease and understand more about its aetiology with imaging and data processing. This study clarifies the need for medical image processing and analysis strategies which aid in the non-invasive diagnosis of AD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T01:33:12Z","timestamp":1673400792000},"page":"1273","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Identification of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease by Imaging: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Prasath","family":"T.","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, VIT Chennai, Chennai 600127, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6042-0934","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sumathi","family":"V.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Automation, School of Electrical Engineering, VIT Chennai, Chennai 600127, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1312889","article-title":"Phase 3 Trials of Solanezumab for Mild-to-Moderate Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"370","author":"Doody","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2011.596805","article-title":"Underdiagnosis of Dementia in Primary Care: Variations in the Observed Prevalence and Comparisons to the Expected Prevalence","volume":"15","author":"Connolly","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2009.03.002","article-title":"Tau Inclusions in Retinal Ganglion Cells of Human P301S Tau Transgenic Mice: Effects on Axonal Viability","volume":"32","author":"Gasparini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.06.020","article-title":"Identification of Amyloid Plaques in Retinas from Alzheimer\u2019s Patients and Noninvasive in Vivo Optical Imaging of Retinal Plaques in a Mouse Model","volume":"54","author":"Koronyo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2009.090159","article-title":"Amyloid-Peptide Vaccinations Reduce \u03b2-Amyloid Plaques but Exacerbate Vascular Deposition and Inflammation in the Retina of Alzheimer\u2019s Transgenic Mice","volume":"175","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.2006.tb00559.x","article-title":"The Cerebral \u03b2-Amyloid Angiopathies: Hereditary and Sporadic","volume":"16","author":"Duinen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13835","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1201209109","article-title":"Postsynaptic Dysfunction Is Associated with Spatial and Object Recognition Memory Loss in a Natural Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"109","author":"Ardiles","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pdb.emo071357","DOI":"10.1101\/pdb.emo071357","article-title":"Octodon Degus (Molina 1782): A Model in Comparative Biology and Biomedicine","volume":"2013","author":"Ardiles","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruban, J., Dinet, V., and Mascarelli, F. (2012). The Role of Amyloid-\u03b2 in Retinal Degeneration. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0631-0_10"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bull, N.D., Guidi, A., Goedert, M., Martin, K.R., and Spillantini, M.G. (2012). Reduced Axonal Transport and Increased Excitotoxic Retinal Ganglion Cell Degeneration in Mice Transgenic for Human Mutant P301S Tau. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034724"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.66.2.137","article-title":"The Cholinergic Hypothesis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Review of Progress","volume":"66","author":"Francis","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(86)90062-7","article-title":"The Cholinergic Amacrine Cell","volume":"9","author":"Masland","year":"1986","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1987.58.5.997","article-title":"Action and Localization of Acetylcholine in the Cat Retina","volume":"58","author":"Schmidt","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strenn, K., Dal-Bianco, P., Weghaupt, H., Koch, G., Vass, C., and Gottlob, I. (1991). Pattern Electroretinogram and Luminance Electroretinogram in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Age-Associated Neurological Diseases, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-9135-4_12"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310476","article-title":"Evaluation of Optical Coherence Tomography Angiographic Findings in Alzheimer\u2019s Type Dementia","volume":"102","author":"Bulut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2016.12.011","article-title":"Retinal Thinning Is Uniquely Associated with Medial Temporal Lobe Atrophy in Neurologically Normal Older Adults","volume":"51","author":"Casaletto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Fischer, H. (2022, April 25). Three Main Layers of the Eye. Available online: http:\/\/open.umich.edu\/education\/med\/resources\/second-look-series\/materials."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1578","article-title":"Association of Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thinning with Current and Future Cognitive Decline","volume":"75","author":"Ko","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200971","article-title":"The Retinal Vessel Density Can Reflect Cognitive Function in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Evidence from Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography","volume":"79","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574816","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/1574816","article-title":"Retinal Levels of Amyloid Beta Correlate with Cerebral Levels of Amyloid Beta in Young APPswe\/PS1dE9 Transgenic Mice before Onset of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"2020","author":"Mei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-020-00724-0","article-title":"Retinal Microvasculature Dysfunction Is Associated with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment","volume":"12","author":"Chua","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e781","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14381","article-title":"Retinal Microvascular Attenuation in Mental Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease by Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography","volume":"98","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.-I., and Kang, B.-H. (2019). Decreased Retinal Thickness in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Is Correlated with Disease Severity. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224180"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.914889","article-title":"Peripapillary Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Comparison of Eyes of Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma, and Preperimetric Glaucoma and Healthy Controls","volume":"25","author":"Zabel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16345","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-34577-3","article-title":"Usefulness of Peripapillary Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness Assessed by Optical Coherence Tomography as a Biomarker for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"8","author":"Valero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e93621","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93621","article-title":"Retinal Amyloid Pathology and Proof-of-Concept Imaging Trial in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"2","author":"Koronyo","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"162","article-title":"Retinal Thickness in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Haan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. Diagn. Assess. Dis. Monit."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2017.09.003","article-title":"Retinal Neurodegeneration and Brain MRI Markers: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"60","author":"Mutlu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2016.00267","article-title":"Amyloid Plaques in Retina for Diagnosis in Alzheimer\u2019s Patients: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"8","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1177\/1533317515628053","article-title":"Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thinning in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"31","author":"Pillai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Other Dement.\u00ae"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1980.4766994","article-title":"Digital Image Enhancement and Noise Filtering by Use of Local Statistics","volume":"PAMI-2","author":"Lee","year":"1980","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1985.4767641","article-title":"Adaptive Noise Smoothing Filter for Images with Signal-Dependent Noise","volume":"PAMI-7","author":"Kuan","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1982.4767223","article-title":"A Model for Radar Images and Its Application to Adaptive Digital Filtering of Multiplicative Noise","volume":"PAMI-4","author":"Frost","year":"1982","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2020.3040270","article-title":"Reconstruction of Optical Coherence Tomography Images Using Mixed Low Rank Approximation and Second Order Tensor Based Total Variation Method","volume":"40","author":"Daneshmand","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70693-2","article-title":"Enhanced Stimulus Strength Improves Visual Cognition in Aging and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"43","author":"Gilmore","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P54","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/58.1.P54","article-title":"The Impact of Acuity on Performance of Four Clinical Measures of Contrast Sensitivity in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"58","author":"Neargarder","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilmore, G.C., Morrison, S.R., and Groth, K.E. (2004). Magnocellular Deficit Hypothesis in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Vision in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Karger.","DOI":"10.1159\/000080005"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.19.000158","article-title":"Structural Modeling of Contrast Sensitivity in Adulthood","volume":"19","author":"Scialfa","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1080\/03610730590882828","article-title":"Stimulus Contrast and Word Reading Speed in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"31","author":"Gilmore","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Aging Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198608213150804","article-title":"Optic-Nerve Degeneration in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"315","author":"Hinton","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1852","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000244490.07925.8b","article-title":"Reduction of Optic Nerve Fibers in Patients with Alzheimer Disease Identified by Laser Imaging","volume":"67","author":"Birch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2001.079002187.x","article-title":"An Evaluation of the Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness by Scanning Laser Polarimetry in Individuals with Dementia of the Alzheimer Type","volume":"79","author":"Kergoat","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(01)00620-4","article-title":"Morphological and Functional Retinal Impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Patients","volume":"112","author":"Parisi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wno.0000204645.56873.26","article-title":"Relationship between Cognitive Impairment and Retinal Morphological and Visual Functional Abnormalities in Alzheimer Disease","volume":"26","author":"Iseri","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neuro-Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000280584.64363.83","article-title":"Neuroimaging of Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer in AD Using Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"69","author":"Valenti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00022","article-title":"Detection of Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Defects in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Using SD-OCT","volume":"5","author":"Kromer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.153.1.32","article-title":"Visual Cortical Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Evaluated with a Temporally Graded \u201cStress Test\u201d during PET","volume":"153","author":"Mentis","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valenti, D. (2004). The Anterior Visual System and Circadian Function with Reference to Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Vision in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Karger.","DOI":"10.1159\/000079995"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12070","article-title":"Beta-Amyloid, Phospho-Tau and Alpha-Synuclein Deposits Similar to Those in the Brain Are Not Identified in the Eyes of Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s Disease Patients","volume":"24","author":"Ho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.09-4207","article-title":"Soluble and Mature Amyloid Fibrils in Drusen Deposits","volume":"51","author":"Isas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salobrar-Garc\u00eda, E., de Hoz, R., Ram\u00edrez, A.I., L\u00f3pez-Cuenca, I., Rojas, P., Vazirani, R., Amarante, C., Yubero, R., Gil, P., and Pinazo-Dur\u00e1n, M.D. (2019). Changes in Visual Function and Retinal Structure in the Progression of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220535"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabel, P., Kaluzny, J.J., Zabel, K., Kaluzna, M., Lamkowski, A., Jaworski, D., Makowski, J., Gebska-Toloczko, M., and Kucharski, R. (2021). Quantitative Assessment of Retinal Thickness and Vessel Density Using Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Glaucoma. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248284"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/2\/1273\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:06:10Z","timestamp":1760119570000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/2\/1273"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20021273"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20021273","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]}}}