{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T18:43:38Z","timestamp":1789757018745,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32071061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071061"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32171077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32171077"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JQ22018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JQ22018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["E2CX4015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E2CX4015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32071061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071061"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32171077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32171077"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JQ22018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JQ22018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["E2CX4015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E2CX4015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Foundation of the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["32071061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071061"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Foundation of the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["32171077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32171077"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Foundation of the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["JQ22018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JQ22018"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Foundation of the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["E2CX4015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E2CX4015"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS","award":["32071061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071061"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS","award":["32171077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32171077"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS","award":["JQ22018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JQ22018"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association, CAS","award":["E2CX4015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E2CX4015"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) is a promising noninvasive technique with potential beneficial effects on human emotion and cognition, including cortical arousal and alertness. However, it remains unclear how taVNS could improve cortical arousal and alertness, which are crucial for consciousness and daily task performance. Here, we aimed to estimate the modulatory effect of taVNS on cortical arousal and alertness and to reveal its underlying neural mechanisms. Sixty subjects were recruited and randomly assigned to either the taVNS group (receiving taVNS for 20 min) or the control group (receiving taVNS for 30 s). The effects of taVNS were evaluated behaviorally using a cue-target pattern task, and neurologically using a resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG). We found that taVNS facilitated the reaction time for the targets requiring right-hand responses and attenuated high-frequency alpha oscillations under the close-eye resting state. Importantly, taVNS-modulated alpha oscillations were positively correlated with the facilitated target detection performance, i.e., reduced reaction time. Furthermore, microstate analysis of the resting-state EEG when the eyes were closed illustrated that taVNS reduced the mean duration of microstate C, which has been proven to be associated with alertness. Altogether, this work provided novel evidence suggesting that taVNS could be an enhancer of both cortical arousal and alertness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021402","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T05:03:03Z","timestamp":1673499783000},"page":"1402","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Transcutaneous Auricular Vagus Nerve Stimulation Facilitates Cortical Arousal and Alertness"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Yuxin","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7586-5576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuejing","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7003-2903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Li","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2006.01.017","article-title":"Vigilance, alertness, or sustained attention: Physiological basis and measurement","volume":"117","author":"Oken","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.09.012","article-title":"Neuromodulation of brain states","volume":"76","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.13122","article-title":"The anatomical basis for transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation","volume":"236","author":"Butt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S76","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0839","article-title":"On the functional neuroanatomy of intrinsic and phasic alertness","volume":"14","author":"Sturm","year":"2001","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062111-150525","article-title":"The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after","volume":"35","author":"Petersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2016.12.004","article-title":"Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation in disorders of consciousness monitored by fMRI: The first case report","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.12.005","article-title":"Feasibility, safety and efficacy of transauricular vagus nerve stimulation in a cohort of patients with disorders of consciousness","volume":"13","author":"Noe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"171","article-title":"Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in patients with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A viable option?","volume":"Volume 264","author":"Kadosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2015.12.001","article-title":"EEG beta power and heart rate variability describe the association between cortical and autonomic arousals across sleep","volume":"194","author":"Kuo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci. Basic Clin."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.09.012","article-title":"Waking state: Rapid variations modulate neural and behavioral responses","volume":"87","author":"McGinley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2014.11.018","article-title":"Non-invasive access to the vagus nerve central projections via electrical stimulation of the external ear: fMRI evidence in humans","volume":"8","author":"Frangos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1361-20.2020","article-title":"Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in humans induces pupil dilation and attenuates alpha oscillations","volume":"41","author":"Sharon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12864","article-title":"Exploration of the impact of brief noninvasive vagal nerve stimulation on EEG and event-related potentials","volume":"22","author":"Lewine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2869.2004.00388.x","article-title":"The nature of arousal in sleep","volume":"13","author":"Halasz","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4518","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1520613113","article-title":"Tracking brain arousal fluctuations with fMRI","volume":"113","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"10","article-title":"Subcortical evidence for a contribution of arousal to fMRI studies of brain activity","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2022.06.006","article-title":"Non-invasive cervical vagus nerve stimulation effects on reaction time and valence image anticipation response","volume":"15","author":"Lerman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2014.05.003","article-title":"Feasibility, safety and efficacy of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in chronic tinnitus: An open pilot study","volume":"7","author":"Kreuzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00284","article-title":"Critical review of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation: Challenges for translation to clinical practice","volume":"14","author":"Yap","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rong, P., Liu, A., Zhang, J., Wang, Y., He, W., Yang, A., Li, L., Ben, H., Li, L., and Liu, H. (2014). Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: A randomized controlled trial. Clin. Sci.","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20130518"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.11.062","article-title":"EEG microstates as a tool for studying the temporal dynamics of whole-brain neuronal networks: A review","volume":"180","author":"Michel","year":"2018","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2022.3182705","article-title":"Characteristics of EEG microstate sequences during propofol-induced alterations of brain consciousness states","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.02.052","article-title":"BOLD correlates of EEG topography reveal rapid resting-state network dynamics","volume":"52","author":"Britz","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-014-1299-7","article-title":"The effect of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation on cortical excitability","volume":"122","author":"Capone","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2018.05.026","article-title":"Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence for GABAergic modulation through transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation","volume":"129","author":"Keute","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107465","article-title":"Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation modulates attentional resource deployment towards social cues","volume":"143","author":"Maraver","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.1089","article-title":"The nerve supply of the human auricle","volume":"15","author":"Peuker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Anat."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2022.103038","article-title":"Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation\u2014A brief introduction and overview","volume":"243","author":"Hilz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci. Basic Clin."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Fechner, G.T. (1889). Elementeder Psychophysik, Breitkopfand H\u00e4rtel. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"476","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of Beck Depression Inventory-I among depression patients","volume":"25","author":"Zhen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"108","article-title":"Revision of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory with sample of Chinese college students","volume":"31","author":"Wenli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Nat. Univ. Pekin."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"54","article-title":"Applicability of the positive and negative affect scale in Chinese","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chin. Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2012.10.008","article-title":"Functional features of nociceptive-induced suppression of alpha band electroencephalographic oscillations","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pain"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13483","article-title":"Frontal theta and posterior alpha in resting EEG: A critical examination of convergent and discriminant validity","volume":"57","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-008-0054-5","article-title":"Topographic ERP analyses: A step-by-step tutorial review","volume":"20","author":"Murray","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Topogr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2014.12.010","article-title":"Microstates in resting-state EEG: Current status and future directions","volume":"49","author":"Khanna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2021.06.042","article-title":"Acute effect of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) on brain function","volume":"141","author":"Kavakbasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2015.03.018","article-title":"Responders to vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) in refractory epilepsy have reduced interictal cortical synchronicity on scalp EEG","volume":"113","author":"Bodin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.878962","article-title":"Transcutaneous cervical vagus nerve stimulation induces changes in the electroencephalogram and heart rate variability of healthy dogs, a pilot study","volume":"9","author":"Castillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(96)00066-9","article-title":"Event-related synchronization (ERS) in the alpha band\u2014An electrophysiological correlate of cortical idling: A review","volume":"24","author":"Pfurtscheller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19377","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117190108","article-title":"\u03b1-Oscillations in the monkey sensorimotor network influence discrimination performance by rhythmical inhibition of neuronal spiking","volume":"108","author":"Haegens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.09.004","article-title":"Brain networks and \u03b1-oscillations: Structural and functional foundations of cognitive control","volume":"20","author":"Sadaghiani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00099","article-title":"Pulsed out of awareness: EEG alpha oscillations represent a pulsed-inhibition of ongoing cortical processing","volume":"2","author":"Mathewson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.021","article-title":"Spontaneous locally restricted EEG alpha activity determines cortical excitability in the motor cortex","volume":"47","author":"Sauseng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2013.01.011","article-title":"CNS BOLD fMRI effects of sham-controlled transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in the left outer auditory canal\u2014A pilot study","volume":"6","author":"Kraus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1515\/BMT.2008.022","article-title":"A novel transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation leads to brainstem and cerebral activations measured by functional MRI","volume":"53","author":"Dietrich","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biomed. Tech. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.X., Lu, X.J., and Hu, L. (2022). The modulatory effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) on attentional processes. Hum. Brain Mapp., under review.","DOI":"10.1136\/gpsych-2023-101176"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709","article-title":"An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: Adaptive gain and optimal performance","volume":"28","author":"Cohen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ricci, L., Croce, P., Lanzone, J., Boscarino, M., Zappasodi, F., Tombini, M., Di Lazzaro, V., and Assenza, G. (2020). Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation modulates EEG microstates and delta activity in healthy subjects. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10100668"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0135058100","article-title":"Functional connectivity in the resting brain: A network analysis of the default mode hypothesis","volume":"100","author":"Greicius","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"2573","article-title":"Variation of the default mode network with altered alertness levels induced by propofol","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-020-00792-3","article-title":"Dynamic properties of human default mode network in eyes-closed and eyes-open","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Topogr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.01.026","article-title":"Cingulo-opercular network activity maintains alertness","volume":"128","author":"Coste","year":"2016","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117393","article-title":"Evidence for modulation of EEG microstate sequence by vigilance level","volume":"224","author":"Krylova","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2018.04.011","article-title":"From swing to cane: Sex differences of EEG resting-state temporal patterns during maturation and aging","volume":"31","author":"Tomescu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.08.058","article-title":"The EEG microstate topography is predominantly determined by intracortical sources in the alpha band","volume":"162","author":"Milz","year":"2017","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Pascual-Marqui, R.D., Kochi, K., and Kinoshita, T. (2022). On the relation between EEG microstates and cross-spectra. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-58787-w","article-title":"EEG microstates associated with intra- and inter-subject alpha variability","volume":"10","author":"Croce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2015.03.004","article-title":"Spectral and source structural development of mu and alpha rhythms from infancy through adulthood","volume":"127","author":"Thorpe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(02)00304-8","article-title":"Source localization of MEG sleep spindles and the relation to sources of alpha band rhythms","volume":"113","author":"Manshanden","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00933","article-title":"Transcutaneous auricular vagal nerve stimulation and disorders of consciousness: A hypothesis for mechanisms of action","volume":"11","author":"Briand","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145712000387","article-title":"Electrophysiological and neurochemical effects of long-term vagus nerve stimulation on the rat monoaminergic systems","volume":"16","author":"Manta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-019-00723-x","article-title":"Cross-species investigation on resting state electroencephalogram","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Topogr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.03.077","article-title":"Neurobiological mechanisms of TENS-induced analgesia","volume":"195","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/2\/1402\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:04:13Z","timestamp":1760119453000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/2\/1402"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20021402"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20021402","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}}}