{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T21:50:28Z","timestamp":1790805028380,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) is a life-changing condition whose etiology is explained by several hypotheses. Recently, a new virus contributed to the evidence of viral involvement in AD: the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes the COVID-19 coronavirus disease. AD was found to be one of the most common COVID-19 comorbidities, and it was found to increase mortality from this disease as well. Moreover, AD patients were observed to present with the distinct clinical features of COVID-19, with delirium being prevalent in this group. The SARS-CoV-2 virus enters host cells through the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. ACE2 is overexpressed in brains with AD, which thus increases the viral invasion. Furthermore, the inhibition of the ACE2 receptor by the SARS-CoV-2 virus may also decrease the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), contributing to neurodegeneration. The ApoE \u03b54 allele, which increases the risk of AD, was found to facilitate the SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. Furthermore, the neuroinflammation and oxidative stress existing in AD patients enhance the inflammatory response associated with COVID-19. Moreover, pandemic and associated social distancing measures negatively affected the mental health, cognitive function, and neuro-psychiatric symptoms of AD patients. This review comprehensively covers the links between COVID-19 and Alzheimer\u2019s disease, including clinical presentation, molecular mechanisms, and the effects of social distancing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T03:53:18Z","timestamp":1674618798000},"page":"2146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Links between COVID-19 and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease\u2014What Do We Already Know?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Ewa","family":"Rudnicka-Dro\u017cak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair and Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Langiewicza 6a, 20-035 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2122-4332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulina","family":"Dro\u017cak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society, Chair and Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Langiewicza 6a, 20-035 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Mizerski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair and Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Langiewicza 6a, 20-035 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomasz","family":"Zaborowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair and Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Langiewicza 6a, 20-035 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0101-9216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"\u015alusarska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Family and Geriatric Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, 20-081 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0503-8847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Nowicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Family and Geriatric Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, 20-081 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martyna","family":"Dro\u017cak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Student Scientific Society, Chair and Department of Family Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Langiewicza 6a, 20-035 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"149","article-title":"Nouvelles tendances \u00e9pid\u00e9miologiques de la maladie d\u2019Alzheimer [Epidemiology of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Latest trends]","volume":"70","author":"Dumurgier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev Prat."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"377","article-title":"Epidemiologia de la enfermedad de Alzheimer y otras demencias [Epidemiology of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias]","volume":"66","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2589276","article-title":"Therapies for Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"2016","author":"Berumen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.14506.1","article-title":"Current understanding of Alzheimer\u2019s disease diagnosis and treatment","volume":"7","author":"Weller","year":"2018","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2016.04.002","article-title":"Prevalence of dementia subtypes in United States Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries, 2011\u20132013","volume":"13","author":"Goodman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-018-0107-y","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease hypothesis and related therapies","volume":"7","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.31083\/j.jin2102073","article-title":"Infectious agents and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"21","author":"Piekut","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. 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