{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T02:46:04Z","timestamp":1791081964636,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":193,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]],"date-time":"2023-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is active smoking. However, a considerable amount of people with COPD never smoked, and increasing evidence suggests that adult lung disease can have its origins in prenatal and early life. This article reviews some of the factors that can potentially affect lung development and lung function trajectories throughout the lifespan from genetics and prematurity to respiratory tract infections and childhood asthma. Maternal smoking and air pollution exposure were also analyzed among the environmental factors. The adoption of preventive strategies to avoid these risk factors since the prenatal period may be crucial to prevent, delay the onset or modify the progression of COPD lung disease throughout life.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032294","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T03:31:11Z","timestamp":1675049471000},"page":"2294","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Early Origins of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Prenatal and Early Life Risk Factors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5877-025X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michela","family":"Deolmi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicola Mattia","family":"Decarolis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Motta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heidi","family":"Makrinioti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 01451, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Fainardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanna","family":"Pisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Pediatric Clinic, Az. Ospedaliera-Universitaria di Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susanna","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43124 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (2022, November 01). Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease [Updated 2020]. Available online: https:\/\/goldcopd.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/GOLD-2020-FINAL-ver1.2-03Dec19_WMV.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Forum of International Respiratory Societies (2022, November 01). The Global Impact of Respiratory Disease. Third Edition. Available online: Firsnet.org\/images\/publications\/FIRS_Master_09202021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.10-1253","article-title":"COPD in never smokers: Results from the population-based burden of obstructive lung disease study","volume":"139","author":"Lamprecht","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"218","article-title":"The first 1000 days: An opportunity to reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases","volume":"36","author":"Collado","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"462","article-title":"Nutrition and growth in children","volume":"72","author":"Matonti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Minerva Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.14144","article-title":"Impact of early life exposures on COPD in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.14142","article-title":"Predictors of lung function trajectories in population-based studies: A systematic review","volume":"26","author":"Okyere","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Calogero, C., and Sly, P.D. (2010). Paediatric Lung Function, European Respiratory Society."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"186","article-title":"Alveolarization continues during childhood and adolescence: New evidence from helium-3 magnetic resonance","volume":"185","author":"Narayanan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2013.00174","article-title":"Heritability of pulmonary function estimated from pedigree and whole-genome markers","volume":"4","author":"Klimentidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S203215","article-title":"The etiologic origins for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)60446-3","article-title":"Risk factors and early origins of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"385","author":"Postma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2011.02.002","article-title":"The discovery of \u03b11-antitrypsin and its role in health and disease","volume":"105","author":"Janciauskiene","year":"2011","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-018-0856-9","article-title":"Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency: Outstanding questions and future directions","volume":"13","author":"Barrecheguren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Orphanet J. Rare Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pini, L., Tiberio, L., Arici, M., Corda, L., Giordani, J., Bargagli, E., and Tantucci, C. (2021). Z-alpha1-antitrypsin polymers and small airways disease: A new paradigm in alfa-1 anti-trypsin deficiency-related COPD development?. Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis., 91.","DOI":"10.4081\/monaldi.2021.1883"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2019.11.010","article-title":"Prevalence of Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency in COPD Patients in Argentina. The DAAT.AR Study","volume":"56","author":"Menga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2020.03.006","article-title":"miR-320c Regulates SERPINA1 Expression and Is Induced in Patients with Pulmonary Disease","volume":"57","author":"Matamala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.13436","article-title":"Genetic risk factors for the development of pulmonary disease identified by genome-wide association","volume":"24","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00129509","article-title":"Hedgehog-interacting protein is a COPD susceptibility gene: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"36","author":"Eijgelsheim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L391","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00369.2010","article-title":"Cigarette smoke exposure aggravates air space enlargement and alveolar cell apoptosis in Smad3 knockout mice","volume":"301","author":"Farkas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200411-1486OC","article-title":"A disintegrin and metalloprotease 33 polymorphisms and lung function decline in the general population","volume":"172","author":"Postma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200409-1175OC","article-title":"A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 33 protein in patients with asthma: Relevance to airflow limitation","volume":"173","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrfmmm.2013.04.001","article-title":"Air pollutants, genes and early childhood acute bronchitis","volume":"749","author":"Ghosh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2009.12.018","article-title":"CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYBA gene polymorphisms associated with oxidative stress in COPD","volume":"411","author":"Vibhuti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.1342.13.8","article-title":"Benzo(a)pyrene diolepoxide (BPDE)-DNA adduct levels in leukocytes of smokers in relation to polymorphism of CYP1A1, GSTM1, GSTP1, GSTT1, and mEH","volume":"13","author":"Lodovici","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/956250","article-title":"Combined analysis of EPHX1, GSTP1, GSTM1 and GSTT1 gene polymorphisms in relation to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease risk and lung function impairment","volume":"30","author":"Lakhdar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dis. Mark."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201103-0548OC","article-title":"Identification of SPOCK2 as a susceptibility gene for bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"184","author":"Hadchouel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2014.09.052","article-title":"Genomics and Cytokine Subcommittees of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Integrated genomic analyses in bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"166","author":"Ambalavanan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-0533","article-title":"A genome-wide association study (GWAS) for bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"132","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-1414","article-title":"Familial and genetic susceptibility to major neonatal morbidities in preterm twins","volume":"117","author":"Bhandari","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.36659","article-title":"Copy number variation in bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"164","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. A"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2015.01.001","article-title":"Exome sequencing and pathway analysis for identification of genetic variability relevant for bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in preterm newborns: A pilot study","volume":"451","author":"Carrera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201501-0168OC","article-title":"Exome Sequencing of Neonatal Blood Spots and the Identification of Genes Implicated in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"192","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.14294","article-title":"Telomere length was similar in school-age children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia and allergic asthma","volume":"107","author":"Henckel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2014-0160OC","article-title":"Alterations in gene expression and DNA methylation during murine and human lung alveolar septation","volume":"53","author":"Cuna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R210","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2007-8-10-r210","article-title":"Perturbation of gene expression of the chromatin remodeling pathway in premature newborns at risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"8","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-013-2753-8","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A review","volume":"288","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.11.025","article-title":"Black Race Is Associated with a Lower Risk of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"207","author":"Ryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.02.032","article-title":"Maternal Black Race and Persistent Wheezing Illness in Former Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborns: Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Trial","volume":"198","author":"Wai","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00080312","article-title":"ERS Global Lung Function Initiative. Multi-ethnic reference values for spirometry for the 3-95-yr age range: The global lung function 2012 equations","volume":"40","author":"Quanjer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2021.11.005","article-title":"Adverse early-life environmental exposures and their repercussions on adult respiratory health","volume":"98","author":"Mocelin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1159\/000369369","article-title":"Health effects of passive smoking in children","volume":"Volume 42","author":"Loddenkemper","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Tobacco Epidemic"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00083406","article-title":"Air pollution and development of asthma, allergy and infections in a birth cohort","volume":"29","author":"Brauer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200802-309OC","article-title":"Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children","volume":"178","author":"Jackson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.87.5.417","article-title":"Reduced lung function both before bronchiolitis and at 11 years","volume":"87","author":"Turner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)69286-6","article-title":"Perennial allergen sensitisation early in life and chronic asthma in children: A birth cohort study","volume":"368","author":"Illi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200308-1174OC","article-title":"Progression of asthma measured by lung function in the childhood asthma management program","volume":"170","author":"Covar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200406-695OC","article-title":"Wheeze phenotypes and lung function in preschool children","volume":"171","author":"Lowe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200504-525OC","article-title":"Outcome of asthma and wheezing in the first 6 years of life: Follow-up through adolescence","volume":"172","author":"Morgan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa022363","article-title":"A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood","volume":"349","author":"Sears","year":"2003","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0496(199701)23:1<14::AID-PPUL2>3.0.CO;2-P","article-title":"Childhood asthma and lung function in mid-adult life","volume":"23","author":"Oswald","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13516","article-title":"Asthma, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, allergy and lung function development until early adulthood: A systematic literature review","volume":"32","author":"Koefoed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.2147\/JAA.S366453","article-title":"Poor Asthma Control in Schoolchildren May Lead to Lower Lung Function Trajectory from Childhood to Early Adulthood: A Japanese Cohort Study","volume":"15","author":"Tsuneyoshi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Asthma Allergy"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13054","article-title":"Linking COPD epidemiology with pediatric asthma care: Implications for the patient and the physician","volume":"30","author":"Guerra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.149.1.8111567","article-title":"Outcome of wheeze in childhood. Symptoms and pulmonary function 25 years later","volume":"149","author":"Godden","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.02.00208102","article-title":"Lung and thorax development during adolescence: Relationship with pubertal status","volume":"20","author":"Girard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004103","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.04103-2020","article-title":"Development of lung diffusion to adulthood following extremely preterm birth","volume":"59","author":"Satrell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201302-0215OC","article-title":"Increased risk of pneumonia and bronchiolitis after bacterial colonization of the airways as neonates","volume":"188","author":"Vissing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201207-1297OC","article-title":"Pathogenic bacteria colonizing the airways in asymptomatic neonates stimulates topical inflammatory mediator release","volume":"187","author":"Chawes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5001","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-12989-7","article-title":"Infant airway microbiota and topical immune perturbations in the origins of childhood asthma","volume":"10","author":"Thorsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.07.034","article-title":"Temporal association of the development of oropharyngeal microbiota with early life wheeze in a population-based birth cohort","volume":"46","author":"Powell","year":"2019","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1007302","article-title":"Exposure to environmental microorganisms and childhood asthma","volume":"364","author":"Ege","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardenas, P.A., Cooper, P.J., Cox, M.J., Chico, M., Arias, C., Moffatt, M.F., and Cookson, W.O. (2012). Upper airways microbiota in antibiotic-na\u00efve wheezing and healthy infants from the tropics of rural Ecuador. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0046803"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.08.005","article-title":"Airway Microbiota Dynamics Uncover a Critical Window for Interplay of Pathogenic Bacteria and Allergy in Childhood Respiratory Disease","volume":"24","author":"Teo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.01.032","article-title":"Establishment of the nasal microbiota in the first 18 months of life: Correlation with early-onset rhinitis and wheezing","volume":"142","author":"Ta","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.10.009","article-title":"Developmental patterns in the nasopharyngeal microbiome during infancy are associated with asthma risk","volume":"147","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200807-1126OC","article-title":"Severe exacerbations and decline in lung function in asthma","volume":"179","author":"Pedersen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.160.6.9812100","article-title":"Risk factors for growth and decline of lung function in asthmatic individuals up to age 42 years. A 30-year follow-up study","volume":"160","author":"Grol","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1002\/ped4.12165","article-title":"Airway function throughout the lifespan: Pediatric origins of adult respiratory disease","volume":"3","author":"Allen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Investig."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1513737","article-title":"Patterns of Growth and Decline in Lung Function in Persistent Childhood Asthma","volume":"374","author":"McGeachie","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411532","article-title":"Lung-Function Trajectories Leading to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"373","author":"Lange","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2020-215884","article-title":"Early-life risk factors for reversible and irreversible airflow limitation in young adults: Findings from the BAMSE birth cohort","volume":"76","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201605-1039OC","article-title":"Obesity and Airway Dysanapsis in Children with and without Asthma","volume":"195","author":"Forno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1236","article-title":"Dysanaptic lung growth: An experimental and allometric approach","volume":"54","author":"Mortola","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol. Respir. Environ. Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1754.1999.00422.x","article-title":"Lung function outcome in children of premature birth","volume":"35","author":"Kennedy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Paediatr. Child. Health"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00650","article-title":"Expiratory Flow\u2013Vital Capacity: Airway\u2013Lung Dysanapsis in 7 Year Olds Born Very Preterm?","volume":"9","author":"Ioan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.10.046","article-title":"Influence of childhood growth on asthma and lung function in adolescence","volume":"135","author":"Howe","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00457","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00457-2021","article-title":"Spirometric phenotypes from early childhood to young adulthood: A Chronic Airway Disease Early Stratification study","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000157","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00157-2020","article-title":"Early childhood growth is associated with lung function at 7 years: A prospective population-based study","volume":"56","author":"Peralta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Wilmott, R., Deterding, R., Li, A., Ratjen, F., Sly, P., and Zar, H.J. (2019). Kendig\u2019s Disorders of the Respiratory Tract in Children, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61379-8","article-title":"Poor airway function in early infancy and lung function by age 22 years: A non-selective longitudinal cohort study","volume":"370","author":"Stern","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6077.1645","article-title":"The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction","volume":"1","author":"Fletcher","year":"1977","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1603287","article-title":"Early-Life Origins of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","volume":"375","author":"Martinez","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.12.1061","article-title":"Relationship between birth weight and adult lung function: Controlling for maternal factors","volume":"58","author":"Edwards","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2005.042408","article-title":"Association of birth weight with adult lung function: Findings from the British Women\u2019s Heart and Health Study and a meta-analysis","volume":"60","author":"Lawlor","year":"2005","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.02.00234102","article-title":"Perinatal predictors of respiratory symptoms and lung function at a young adult age","volume":"20","author":"Boezen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200705-701OC","article-title":"Longitudinal evaluation of airway function 21 years after preterm birth","volume":"178","author":"Narang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S438","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201602-112AW","article-title":"Lung Development and Aging","volume":"13","author":"Bush","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac Soc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-013-9761-7","article-title":"Obstructive pulmonary disease in old age among individuals born preterm","volume":"28","author":"Akre","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.303.6804.671","article-title":"Relation of birth weight and childhood respiratory infection to adult lung function and death from chronic obstructive airways disease","volume":"303","author":"Barker","year":"1991","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.306.6881.817","article-title":"Effects of prematurity and intrauterine growth on respiratory health and lung function in childhood","volume":"306","author":"Rona","year":"1993","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200906-0897OC","article-title":"Spirometric lung function in school-age children: Effect of intrauterine growth retardation and catch-up growth","volume":"181","author":"Kotecha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24179","article-title":"Lung function in a cohort of 5-year-old children born very preterm","volume":"53","author":"Lombardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.156.4.9610028","article-title":"Bronchial lability and responsiveness in school children born very preterm","volume":"156","author":"Pelkonen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2011-200329","article-title":"Effect of late preterm birth on longitudinal lung spirometry in school age children and adolescents","volume":"67","author":"Kotecha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101597","article-title":"Long-term expiratory airflow of infants born moderate-late preterm: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Nesci","year":"2022","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.08.050","article-title":"Early growth characteristics and the risk of reduced lung function and asthma: A meta-analysis of 25,000 children","volume":"137","author":"Arshad","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra067279","article-title":"Chronic lung disease after premature birth","volume":"357","author":"Baraldi","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.10068","article-title":"Pulmonary function in technology-dependent children 2 years and older with bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"33","author":"Talmaciu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23090","article-title":"Lung function at 6 and 18 months after preterm birth in relation to severity of bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"50","author":"Thunqvist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(87)80516-4","article-title":"Serial determination of pulmonary function in infants with chronic lung disease","volume":"110","author":"Gerhardt","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.10424","article-title":"Pulmonary function in bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"37","author":"Robin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201611-2386ED","article-title":"The Evolution of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia after 50 Years","volume":"195","author":"Abman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.01.043","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: Executive Summary of a Workshop","volume":"197","author":"Higgins","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2016.4141","article-title":"Revisiting the Definition of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: Effect of Changing Panoply of Respiratory Support for Preterm Neonates","volume":"171","author":"Isayama","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2019.1646240","article-title":"Global incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia among extremely preterm infants: A systematic literature review","volume":"34","author":"Siffel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200902-0242OC","article-title":"Bone marrow stromal cells attenuate lung injury in a murine model of neonatal chronic lung disease","volume":"180","author":"Aslam","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM196702162760701","article-title":"Pulmonary disease following respirator therapy of hyaline-membrane disease. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"276","author":"Northway","year":"1967","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0036-1586107","article-title":"Mechanisms of Lung Injury and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"33","author":"Jobe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0127-7","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"5","author":"Goss","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.33.6.255","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"33","author":"Kair","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-1962","article-title":"Pitfalls, problems, and progress in bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"123","author":"Bhandari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1101","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00343.2017","article-title":"Recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of late lung development and bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"313","author":"Ahlbrecht","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L134","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00112.2009","article-title":"Hyperoxia impairs postnatal alveolar epithelial development via NADPH oxidase in newborn mice","volume":"297","author":"Auten","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1073","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00347.2006","article-title":"Hyperoxia reduces bone marrow, circulating, and lung endothelial progenitor cells in the developing lung: Implications for the pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"292","author":"Balasubramaniam","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-198407000-00003","article-title":"Pulmonary antioxidant enzyme maturation in the fetal and neonatal rat. I. Developmental profiles","volume":"18","author":"Tanswell","year":"1984","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201612-2414OC","article-title":"Antenatal Determinants of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia and Late Respiratory Disease in Preterm Infants","volume":"196","author":"Morrow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F8","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2010.210187","article-title":"Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"97","author":"Hartling","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2016.09.030","article-title":"The Relationship of Nosocomial Infection Reduction to Changes in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Rates of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"180","author":"Lapcharoensap","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2016.138","article-title":"Chorioamnionitis and subsequent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very-low-birth weight infants: A 25-year cohort","volume":"36","author":"Ballard","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.12888","article-title":"Perinatal conditions related to growth restriction and inflammation are associated with an increased risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"104","author":"Eriksson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2015.08.007","article-title":"Impact of Nutrition on Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"42","author":"Poindexter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Polin, R., Abman, S., Rowitch, D., Benitz, W., and Fox, W. (2017). Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, Elsevier. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Polin, R., Abman, S., Rowitch, D., Benitz, W., and Fox, W. (2017). Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, Elsevier. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-015-0055-x","article-title":"Prematurity and the burden of influenza and respiratory syncytial virus disease","volume":"12","author":"Resch","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2011.02404.x","article-title":"Rehospitalization in the first 2 years of life in children born preterm","volume":"101","author":"Ralser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487214","DOI":"10.1080\/20018525.2018.1487214","article-title":"The impact of respiratory viruses on lung health after preterm birth","volume":"5","author":"Townsi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Clin. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.siny.2012.01.009","article-title":"Long term respiratory outcomes of very premature birth (<32 weeks)","volume":"17","author":"Greenough","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2008.095547","article-title":"School age outcome of hospitalisation with respiratory syncytial virus infection of prematurely born infants","volume":"64","author":"Greenough","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2015.124","article-title":"Respiratory morbidity, lung function and fitness assessment after bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"35","author":"Praprotnik","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-019-1238-0","article-title":"Diverging effects of premature birth and bronchopulmonary dysplasia on exercise capacity and physical activity\u2014A case control study","volume":"20","author":"Ruf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20173350","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-3350","article-title":"Infant Pulmonary Function Testing and Phenotypes in Severe Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"141","author":"Shepherd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23393","article-title":"Lung function gain in preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia","volume":"51","author":"Quesada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201412-2142PP","article-title":"Understanding the Short- and Long-Term Respiratory Outcomes of Prematurity and Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia","volume":"192","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2522","article-title":"Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight subjects and lung function in late adolescence","volume":"118","author":"Doyle","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"867","article-title":"Geographical Differences and Temporal Improvements in Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second of Preterm-Born Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"176","author":"Kotecha","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(18)30064-6","article-title":"Lung function trajectories throughout childhood in survivors of very preterm birth: A longitudinal cohort study","volume":"2","author":"Simpson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Child. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Um-Bergstr\u00f6m, P., Hallberg, J., Thunqvist, P., Berggren-Brostr\u00f6m, E., Anderson, M., Adenfelt, G., Lilja, G., Ferrara, G., Sk\u00f6ld, C.M., and Mel\u00e9n, E. (2017). Lung function development after preterm birth in relation to severity of Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. BMC Pulm Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-017-0441-3"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23669","article-title":"Longitudinal impairment of lung function in school-age children with extremely low birth weights","volume":"52","author":"Hirata","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2013.07.045","article-title":"Pulmonary outcome in former preterm, very low birth weight children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A case-control follow-up at school age","volume":"164","author":"Prenzel","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2014.08.049","article-title":"Airway metabolic anomalies in adolescents with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: New insights from the metabolomic approach","volume":"166","author":"Carraro","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.4081\/monaldi.2005.623","article-title":"COPD and tobacco smoke","volume":"63","author":"Bartal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.12750","article-title":"Mother\u2019s smoking and complex lung function of offspring in middle age: A cohort study from childhood","volume":"21","author":"Perret","year":"2016","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)04446-7","article-title":"Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and a family history of asthma on respiratory function in newborn infants","volume":"348","author":"Stick","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-7-48","article-title":"Prenatal and postnatal tobacco smoke exposure and respiratory health in Russian children","volume":"7","author":"Jaakkola","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-783X-14-S4-27","article-title":"Maternal smoking promotes chronic obstructive lung disease in the offspring as adults","volume":"14","author":"Beyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2003.009746","article-title":"Parental smoking in childhood and adult obstructive lung disease: Results from the European Community Respiratory Health Survey","volume":"59","author":"Svanes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.163.2.2006009","article-title":"Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and environmental tobacco smoke on asthma and wheezing in children","volume":"163","author":"Gilliland","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201203-0501OC","article-title":"Maternal smoking in pregnancy and asthma in preschool children: A pooled analysis of eight birth cohorts","volume":"186","author":"Neuman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyy221","article-title":"Independent and combined associations of maternal and own smoking with adult lung function and COPD","volume":"47","author":"Magnus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwm134","article-title":"Effects of pre- and postnatal exposure to parental smoking on early childhood respiratory health","volume":"166","author":"Stigum","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1513\/pats.200907-065DP","article-title":"Intrauterine effects of maternal smoking on sensitization, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"6","author":"Hylkema","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307892","article-title":"Identification of DNA methylation changes in newborns related to maternal smoking during pregnancy","volume":"122","author":"Markunas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408614","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to maternal cigarette smoking and DNA methylation: Epigenome-wide association in a discovery sample of adolescents and replication in an independent cohort at birth through 17 years of age","volume":"123","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2016.02.019","article-title":"DNA Methylation in Newborns and Maternal Smoking in Pregnancy: Genome-wide Consortium Meta-analysis","volume":"98","author":"Joubert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddu739","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to maternal smoking and offspring DNA methylation across the lifecourse: Findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)","volume":"24","author":"Richmond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1205412","article-title":"450K epigenome-wide scan identifies differential DNA methylation in newborns related to maternal smoking during pregnancy","volume":"120","author":"Joubert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2005.015065","article-title":"Parental smoking and children\u2019s respiratory health: Independent effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure","volume":"15","author":"Pattenden","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwp358","article-title":"Association of environmental tobacco smoke exposure in childhood with early emphysema in adulthood among nonsmokers: The MESA-lung study","volume":"171","author":"Lovasi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1843.2012.02129.x","article-title":"Association of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in childhood with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and respiratory symptoms in adults","volume":"17","author":"Johannessen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200807-1097OC","article-title":"Rapid DNA methylation changes after exposure to traffic particles","volume":"179","author":"Baccarelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.15430\/JCP.2017.22.1.6","article-title":"Predictive and Prognostic Biomarkers of Respiratory Diseases due to Particulate Matter Exposure","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.029","article-title":"Exposure to particulate air pollution during early pregnancy is associated with placental DNA methylation","volume":"607\u2013608","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kravitz-Wirtz, N., Teixeira, S., Hajat, A., Woo, B., Crowder, K., and Takeuchi, D. (2018). Early-Life Air Pollution Exposure, Neighborhood Poverty, and Childhood Asthma in the United States, 1990\u20132014. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15061114"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccm.2013.09.011","article-title":"Tobacco smoking and environmental risk factors for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"35","author":"Salvi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chest Med."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"j5299","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j5299","article-title":"Impact of London\u2019s road traffic air and noise pollution on birth weight: Retrospective population based cohort study","volume":"359","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2014-205413","article-title":"Intrauterine and early postnatal exposure to outdoor air pollution and lung function at preschool age","volume":"70","author":"Morales","year":"2015","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.07.017","article-title":"Prenatal fine particulate exposure and early childhood asthma: Effect of maternal stress and fetal sex","volume":"141","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000101023.41844.ac","article-title":"Particulate air pollution and fetal health: A systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence","volume":"15","author":"Glinianaia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040610","article-title":"The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age","volume":"351","author":"Gauderman","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200701-036OC","article-title":"Atopic diseases, allergic sensitization, and exposure to traffic-related air pollution in children","volume":"177","author":"Morgenstern","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2022.08.031","article-title":"Lung Effects of Household Air Pollution","volume":"10","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e018231","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-018231","article-title":"Evaluating the long-term consequences of air pollution in early life: Geographical correlations between coal consumption in 1951\/1952 and current mortality in England and Wales","volume":"8","author":"Phillips","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6871","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110706871","article-title":"Respiratory effects of fine and ultrafine particles from indoor sources\u2014A randomized sham-controlled exposure study of healthy volunteers","volume":"11","author":"Soppa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.129.6.1614","article-title":"Effect of particulate air pollution on lung function in adult and pediatric subjects in a Seattle panel study","volume":"129","author":"Trenga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13741","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13741","article-title":"The role of respiratory syncytial virus- and rhinovirus-induced bronchiolitis in recurrent wheeze and asthma\u2014A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Makrinioti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211592","article-title":"Rhinovirus wheezing illness and genetic risk of childhood-onset asthma","volume":"368","author":"Bochkov","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200312-1647OC","article-title":"Cytokine response patterns, exposure to viruses, and respiratory infections in the first year of life","volume":"170","author":"Copenhaver","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2013-204815","article-title":"The association between childhood asthma and adult chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"69","author":"Tai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1445-5994.2010.02238.x","article-title":"Childhood asthma and GOLD-defined chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"42","author":"Shirtcliffe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-015-0273-8","article-title":"Childhood pneumonia increases risk for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The COPDGene study","volume":"16","author":"Hayden","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201505-0870OC","article-title":"Outcomes of Childhood Asthma and Wheezy Bronchitis. A 50-Year Cohort Study","volume":"193","author":"Tagiyeva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-3060","article-title":"Pneumonia in childhood and impaired lung function in adults: A longitudinal study","volume":"135","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.124.1.63","article-title":"Ratio between forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of vital capacity and FVC is a determinant of airway reactivity and sensitivity to methacholine","volume":"124","author":"Parker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP1273","DOI":"10.1177\/1010539512458953","article-title":"Association between childhood asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in later life","volume":"27","author":"Hirayama","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denguezli, M., Daldoul, H., Harrabi, I., Gnatiuc, L., Coton, S., Burney, P., and Tabka, Z. (2016). COPD in Nonsmokers: Reports from the Tunisian Population-Based Burden of Obstructive Lung Disease Study. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151981"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S285338","article-title":"The Prevalence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the Heterogeneity of Risk Factors in the Canadian Population: Results from the Canadian Obstructive Lung Disease (COLD) Study","volume":"16","author":"Leung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2003.128","article-title":"Airway remodeling in asthma: New insights","volume":"111","author":"Davies","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.12860","article-title":"Clinically remitted childhood asthma is associated with airflow obstruction in middle-aged adults","volume":"22","author":"Omori","year":"2017","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.05.043","article-title":"Asthma-like symptoms in young children increase the risk of COPD","volume":"147","author":"Bisgaard","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30413-6","article-title":"Trajectories of asthma and allergies from 7 years to 53 years and associations with lung function and extrapulmonary comorbidity profiles: A prospective cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Bui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00165106","article-title":"Severe exacerbations predict excess lung function decline in asthma","volume":"30","author":"Bai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201606-1272OC","article-title":"Childhood Lung Function Predicts Adult Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Asthma-Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Overlap Syndrome","volume":"196","author":"Bui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/3\/2294\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:17:29Z","timestamp":1760120249000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/3\/2294"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]]},"references-count":193,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20032294"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20032294","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]]}}}