{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T22:53:47Z","timestamp":1785797627624,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]],"date-time":"2023-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency of the Ministry of Environment, Japan","award":["JPMEERF21S12020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMEERF21S12020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies have established a link between exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) and mortality in infants and children. However, few studies have explored the association between post-birth exposure to PM2.5 and under-5 mortality. We conducted a scoping review to identify relevant epidemiological evidence on the association between post-birth ambient PM2.5 exposure and under-5 mortality. We searched PubMed and Web of Science for articles published between 1970 and the end of January 2022 that explicitly linked ambient PM2.5 and under-5 mortality by considering the study area, study design, exposure window, and child age. Information was extracted on the study characteristics, exposure assessment and duration, outcomes, and effect estimates\/findings. Ultimately, 13 studies on infant and child mortality were selected. Only four studies measured the effect of post-birth exposure to PM2.5 on under-5 mortality. Only one cohort study mentioned a positive association between post-birth ambient PM2.5 exposure and under-5 mortality. The results of this scoping review highlight the need for extensive research in this field, given that long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 is a major global health risk and child mortality remains high in some countries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043270","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]],"date-time":"2023-02-13T04:32:58Z","timestamp":1676262778000},"page":"3270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Association between Long-Term Ambient PM2.5 Exposure and under-5 Mortality: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Wahida Musarrat","family":"Anita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kayo","family":"Ueda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Hygiene, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8638, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0101-2535","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athicha","family":"Uttajug","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hygiene, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8638, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xerxes Tesoro","family":"Seposo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hygiene, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8638, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hirohisa","family":"Takano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2020, May 19). United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation Levels & Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2017, Estimates Developed by the United Nations Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. United Nations Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UN IGME). Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/reports\/levels-and-trends-child-mortality-report-2017."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00515-5","article-title":"Global, regional, and national trends in under-5 mortality between 1990 and 2019 with scenario-based projections until 2030, A systematic analysis by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation","volume":"10","author":"Sharrow","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"IGME U (2022, July 05). Levels & Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2021, Estimates Developed by the United Nations Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. United Nations Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UN IGME). Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/reports\/levels-and-trends-child-mortality-report-2021."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32203-7","article-title":"GBD 2017 Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980\u20132017, A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"392","author":"Feigin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). World Health Statistics 2022: Monitoring Health for the SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, December 02). Air Pollution and Child Health: Prescribing Clean Air. WHO\/CED\/PHE\/18.01. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/air-pollution-and-child-health."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390701598234","article-title":"Children\u2019s response to air pollutants","volume":"71","author":"Bateson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00091","article-title":"The impact of PM2. 5 on the host defense of respiratory system","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.107019","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and acute respiratory infection in children aged under 5 years living in 35 developing countries","volume":"159","author":"Odo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118073","article-title":"Associations between ambient fine particulate matter and child respiratory infection: The role of particulate matter source composition in Dhaka, Bangladesh","volume":"290","author":"Sherris","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106486","article-title":"Fine particulate matter concentration and composition and the incidence of childhood asthma","volume":"152","author":"Lavigne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, Y.N., Cheng, F.J., Tsai, M.T., Tsai, C.M., Chuang, P.C., and Cheng, C.Y. (2021). Fine particulate matter constituents associated with emergency room visits for pediatric asthma: A time-stratified case\u2013crossover study in an urban area. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11636-5"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Xu, J., Chen, D., Sun, P., and Ma, X. (2019). The association between air pollution and preterm birth and low birth weight in Guangdong, China. BMC Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-6307-7"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Ren, Z., Liu, Y., Qiu, Y., Yang, H., Zhou, Y., Wang, X., Jiao, K., Liao, J., and Ma, L. (2021). The association between preterm birth and ambient air pollution exposure in Shiyan, China, 2015\u20132017. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18084326"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001039","article-title":"Fine particulate air pollution and birthweight: Differences in associations along the birthweight distribution","volume":"30","author":"Fong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0501-7","article-title":"The association of early-life exposure to ambient PM 2.5 and later-childhood height-for-age in India: An observational study","volume":"18","author":"Spears","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.107003","article-title":"Maternal and childhood ambient air pollution exposure and mental health symptoms and psychomotor development in children: An Australian population-based longitudinal study","volume":"158","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.Y., Cheng, Y.Y., Guo, H.R., and Tseng, Y.C. (2021). Air pollution during pregnancy and childhood autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18189784"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"6127845","article-title":"Increased outdoor PM2. 5 concentration is associated with moderate\/severe anemia in children aged 6\u201359 months in Lima, Peru","volume":"2019","author":"Tapia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199903000-00006","article-title":"Air pollution and infant mortality in Mexico City","volume":"10","author":"Loomis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-020-0562-1","article-title":"Dust pollution from the Sahara and African infant mortality","volume":"3","author":"Burney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwx015","article-title":"Pregnancy and lifetime exposure to fine particulate matter and infant mortality in Massachusetts, 2001\u20132007","volume":"186","author":"Son","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106898","article-title":"In utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution and autism spectrum disorder in children","volume":"158","author":"Carter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxq005","article-title":"Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries","volume":"32","author":"Pope","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1179\/2049396715Y.0000000007","article-title":"Consequences of household air pollution on child survival: Evidence from demographic and health surveys in 47 countries","volume":"21","author":"Kleimola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-016-0138-8","article-title":"Household air pollution and under-five mortality in India (1992\u20132006)","volume":"15","author":"Naz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeFranco, E., Hall, E., Hossain, M., Chen, A., Haynes, E.N., Jones, D., Ren, S., Lu, L., and Muglia, L. (2015). Air pollution and stillbirth risk: Exposure to airborne particulate matter during pregnancy is associated with fetal death. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120594"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2019.11.008","article-title":"Maternal exposure to air pollution and the risk of small for gestational age in offspring: A population-based study in Taiwan","volume":"61","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neonatol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2016.1","article-title":"Maternal exposure to air pollutant PM2. 5 and PM10 during pregnancy and risk of congenital heart defects","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, April 16). UN Sustainable Development, Goal 3, Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being at All Ages. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/health."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1364557032000119616","article-title":"Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework","volume":"8","author":"Arksey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-016-0384-4","article-title":"Rayyan\u2014A web and mobile app for systematic reviews","volume":"5","author":"Ouzzani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000002491","article-title":"Social determinants of health training in US primary care residency programs: A scoping review","volume":"94","author":"Gard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acad. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00354","article-title":"The role of engagement in tele neurorehabilitation: A systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Maisto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"017009","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP8910","article-title":"Child Survival and Early Lifetime Exposures to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter in India: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"130","author":"Liao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egondi, T., Ettarh, R., Kyobutungi, C., Ng, N., and Rockl\u00f6v, J. (2018). Exposure to outdoor particles (PM2. 5) and associated child morbidity and mortality in socially deprived neighborhoods of Nairobi, Kenya. Atmosphere, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos9090351"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lien, W.-H., Owili, P.O., Muga, M.A., and Lin, T.-H. (2019). Ambient Particulate Matter Exposure and Under-Five and Maternal Deaths in Asia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16203855"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17654","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74437-7","article-title":"Impacts of discriminated PM2. 5 on global under-five and maternal mortality","volume":"10","author":"Owili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1002364","article-title":"Survival analysis of long-term exposure to different sizes of airborne particulate matter and risk of infant mortality using a birth cohort in Seoul, Korea","volume":"119","author":"Son","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khadka, A., and Canning, D. (2021). Understanding the Pathways from Prenatal and Post-Birth PM2. 5 Exposure to Infant Death: An Observational Analysis Using US Vital Records (2011\u20132013). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010258"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8484","article-title":"Fine particulate matter (PM2. 5) air pollution and selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality in California","volume":"114","author":"Woodruff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105997","article-title":"Association between prenatal exposure to PM2. 5 and the increased risk of specified infant mortality in South Korea","volume":"144","author":"Jung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0263-3","article-title":"Robust relationship between air quality and infant mortality in Africa","volume":"559","author":"Burney","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyz090","article-title":"Early-life exposure to ambient fine particulate air pollution and infant mortality: Pooled evidence from 43 low-and middle-income countries","volume":"48","author":"Goyal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.152755","article-title":"Robust relationship between ambient air pollution and infant mortality in India","volume":"815","author":"deSouza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106739","article-title":"Fine particulate matter constituents and infant mortality in Africa: A multi country study","volume":"156","author":"Bachwenkizi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagher, R.K., and Linares, D.E. (2022). A Critical Review on the Complex Interplay between Social Determinants of Health and Maternal and Infant Mortality. Children, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/children9030394"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3945","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-22-3945-2022","article-title":"Reducing future air-pollution-related premature mortality over Europe by mitigating emissions from the energy sector: Assessing an 80% renewable energies scenario","volume":"22","author":"Im","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1409111","article-title":"Low-concentration PM2. 5 and mortality: Estimating acute and chronic effects in a population-based study","volume":"124","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/ihy065","article-title":"Prevalence of and factors associated with under-5 mortality in South Asia","volume":"11","author":"Sohail","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3270\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:33:20Z","timestamp":1760121200000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3270"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20043270"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20043270","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,13]]}}}