{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T02:14:53Z","timestamp":1790388893821,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676419200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cognitive impairment is common amongst people experiencing homelessness, yet cognitive screening and the collection of history of brain injury rarely features in homelessness service delivery practice. The purpose of this research was to scope and map strategies for screening for the potential presence of cognitive impairment or brain injury amongst people experiencing homelessness and identify instruments that could be administered by homelessness service staff to facilitate referral for formal diagnosis and appropriate support. A search was conducted across five databases, followed by a hand search from relevant systematic reviews. A total of 108 publications were included for analysis. Described in the literature were 151 instruments for measuring cognitive function and 8 instruments screening for history of brain injury. Tools that were described in more than two publications, screening for the potential presence of cognitive impairment or history of brain injury, were included for analysis. Of those regularly described, only three instruments measuring cognitive function and three measuring history of brain injury (all of which focused on traumatic brain injury (TBI)) may be administered by non-specialist assessors. The Trail Making Test (TMT) and the Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Identification Method (OSU TBI-ID) are both potentially viable tools for supporting the identification of a likely cognitive impairment or TBI history in the homelessness service context. Further population-specific research and implementation science research is required to maximise the potential for practice application success.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043440","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]],"date-time":"2023-02-16T02:04:03Z","timestamp":1676513043000},"page":"3440","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploring and Mapping Screening Tools for Cognitive Impairment and Traumatic Brain Injury in the Homelessness Context: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2552-9691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin M.","family":"Fearn-Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, Centre for Disability Research and Policy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5639-6476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justin Newton","family":"Scanlan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, Centre for Disability Research and Policy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6877-9239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Hancock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, Centre for Disability Research and Policy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2020). 58th Session of the Commission for Social Development, United Nations. Conference Room 4."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e125","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.12682","article-title":"Cognitive impairment and homelessness: A scoping review","volume":"27","author":"Stone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Soc. Care Community"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370905400210","article-title":"A systematic review of cognitive deficits in homeless adults: Implications for service delivery","volume":"54","author":"Burra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2014.921714","article-title":"Memory impairment among people who are homeless: A systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Ennis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000248","article-title":"A quantitative review of cognitive functioning in homeless adults","volume":"203","author":"Depp","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s10935-007-0100-1","article-title":"Cognitive impairments and the prevention of homelessness: Research and practice review","volume":"28","author":"Backer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Prim. Prev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.3109\/09638288.2014.895870","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury and cognitive impairment in men who are homeless","volume":"36","author":"Andersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1177\/014107680710000116","article-title":"A systematic review of cognition in homeless children and adolescents","volume":"100","author":"Parks","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2019.02.011","article-title":"Examining patterns of cognitive impairment among homeless and precariously housed urban youth","volume":"72","author":"Barone","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/cki036","article-title":"Prevalence of alcohol related brain damage among homeless hostel dwellers in Glasgow","volume":"15","author":"Gilchrist","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1080\/0164212X.2020.1838400","article-title":"Evaluating Cognitive Impairment and Its Relation to Function in a Population of Individuals Who Are Homeless","volume":"36","author":"Synovec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Occup. Ther. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2015.0010","article-title":"Characteristics of Traumatic Brain Injuries Sustained Among Veterans Seeking Homeless Services","volume":"26","author":"Barnes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2017.0041","article-title":"A Pediatric Profile of a Homeless Patient in San Jose, California","volume":"28","author":"Bymaster","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.7870\/cjcmh-2016-034","article-title":"Brain Injury in Persons With Serious Mental Illness Who Have a History of Chronic Homelessness: Could This Impact How Services Are Delivered?","volume":"35","author":"Gargaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Community Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Hegerty, S.M. (2010). The Neuropsychological Functioning of Men Residing in a Homeless Shelter, Marquette University."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.080341","article-title":"The effect of traumatic brain injury on the health of homeless people","volume":"179","author":"Hwang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Lafferty, B. (2014). Suicide Risk in Homeless Veterans with Traumatic Brain Injury, University of Pennsylvania."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Lo, P.C. (2001). Cognitive Functioning in a Homeless Population: The Relationship of Multiple Traumatic Brain Injuries to Neuropsychological Test Scores, Fuller Theological Seminary\u2013School of Psychololgy."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1348\/014466510X490253","article-title":"Neurobehavioural and cognitive function is linked to childhood trauma in homeless adults","volume":"50","author":"Pluck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S211","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301485","article-title":"Challenges associated with screening for traumatic brain injury among US veterans seeking homeless services","volume":"103","author":"Russell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000310","article-title":"Childhood Trauma and Lifetime Traumatic Brain Injury Among Individuals Who Are Homeless","volume":"33","author":"Song","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"285","article-title":"Addressing brain injury in health care for the homeless settings: A pilot model for provider training","volume":"65","author":"Synovec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Work. J. Prev. Assess. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000044","article-title":"Healthcare Utilization, Legal Incidents, and Victimization Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Individuals: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"30","author":"To","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2016.12.004","article-title":"The high burden of traumatic brain injury and comorbidities amongst homeless adults with mental illness","volume":"87","author":"Schuler","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.71.4.797","article-title":"Brain injury in battered women","volume":"71","author":"Valera","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(19)30188-4","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury in homeless and marginally housed individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Stubbs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Topolovec-Vranic, J., Ennis, N., Colantonio, A., Cusimano, M.D., Hwang, S.W., Kontos, P., Ouchterlony, D., and Stergiopoulos, V. (2012). Traumatic brain injury among people who are homeless: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-12-1059"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gicas, K.M., Jones, A.A., Panenka, W.J., Giesbrecht, C., Lang, D.J., Vila-Rodriguez, F., Leonova, O., Barr, A.M., Procyshyn, R.M., and Su, W. (2019). Cognitive profiles and associated structural brain networks in a multimorbid sample of marginalized adults. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218201"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1097\/01.nmd.0000131962.30547.26","article-title":"Neuropsychological functioning of homeless men","volume":"192","author":"Campbell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1007\/s10597-013-9664-9","article-title":"Indications of Reduced Prefrontal Cortical Function in Chronically Homeless Adults","volume":"50","author":"Davidson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Community Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e469","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.14m09229","article-title":"Factors affecting exits from homelessness among persons with serious mental illness and substance use disorders","volume":"76","author":"Gabrielian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.12391","article-title":"Neurocognitive impairment in a large sample of homeless adults with mental illness","volume":"131","author":"Stergiopoulos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1037\/ort0000340","article-title":"Problem solving skills and deficits among homeless veterans with serious mental illness","volume":"89","author":"Gabrielian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e138","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-4302","article-title":"Cognitive deficit and mental health in homeless transition-age youth","volume":"134","author":"Saperstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11364","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120911364","article-title":"Factors associated with community participation among individuals who have experienced homelessness","volume":"12","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/ap.12359","article-title":"The Prevalence of Cognitive Impairment among People Attending a Homeless Service in Far North Queensland with a Majority Aboriginal and\/or Torres Strait Islander People","volume":"54","author":"White","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aust. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.2015.0077","article-title":"Needing Primary Care But Not Getting It: The Role of Trust, Stigma and Organizational Obstacles reported by Homeless Veterans","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.54.6.905","article-title":"The Effect of Housing Interventions on Neuropsychological Functioning Among Homeless Persons with Mental Illness","volume":"54","author":"Seidman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2005.11.013","article-title":"Change in neurocognition by housing type and substance abuse among formerly homeless seriously mentally ill persons","volume":"83","author":"Caplan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/hsc.12287","article-title":"Self-reported care needs of Dutch homeless people with and without a suspected intellectual disability: A 1.5-year follow-up study","volume":"25","author":"Rodenburg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Soc. Care Community"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Vella, L. (2015). Cognitive Assessment of the Sheltered Homeless, San Diego State University."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"2","article-title":"Service provision for older homeless people with memory problems: A mixed-methods study","volume":"2","author":"Manthorpe","year":"2019","journal-title":"NIHR J. Library. Health Serv. Deliv. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K., and Garcia, I. (2019). Why Do Homeless Families Exit and Return the Homeless Shelter? Factors Affecting the Risk of Family Homelessness in Salt Lake County (Utah, United States) as a Case Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16224328"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e94","DOI":"10.17269\/cjph.107.5271","article-title":"What leads to homeless shelter re-entry? An exploration of the psychosocial, health, contextual and demographic factors","volume":"107","author":"Duchesne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2021). Specialist Homelessness Services Annual Report 2020\u201321."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.92.5.778","article-title":"Emergency Department Use Among the Homeless and Marginally Housed: Results From a Community-Based Study","volume":"92","author":"Kushel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"NSW Government (2021). Pathways to Homelessness: Final Report\u2014December 2021."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1076\/anec.8.3.182.829","article-title":"Identification of Those at Greatest Risk of Harm Among Cognitively Impaired People Who Live Alone","volume":"8","author":"Tierney","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.202000065","article-title":"Rates of Cognitive and Functional Impairments Among Sheltered Adults Experiencing Homelessness","volume":"72","author":"Mahmood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3411","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2019.1700565","article-title":"The inter-relationship between acquired brain injury, substance use and homelessness; the impact of adverse childhood experiences: An interpretative phenomenological analysis study","volume":"43","author":"Adshead","year":"2021","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"311","article-title":"A clinical description of strategies to address traumatic brain injury experienced by homeless patients at Baltimore\u2019s medical respite program","volume":"65","author":"Brocht","year":"2020","journal-title":"Work. J. Prev. Assess. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000099","article-title":"Screening for Traumatic Brain Injury: Findings and Public Health Implications","volume":"29","author":"Cantor","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon, S.J., Grimmer, K., Bradley, A., Direen, T., Baker, N., Marin, T., Kelly, M.T., Gardner, S., Steffens, M., and Burgess, T. (2019). Health assessments and screening tools for adults experiencing homelessness: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7234-y"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-200103000-00006","article-title":"Neuropsychological evaluation of higher functioning homeless persons: A comparison of an abbreviated test battery to the mini-mental state exam","volume":"189","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Adams, S.M. (2009). Neuropsychological Functioning and Attrition Rates in Outpatient Substance Dependence Treatment, Marquette University."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Mackelprang, J., Hartanto, S., and Thielking, M. (2020). Traumatic Brain Injury and Homelessness, Swinburne University of Technology."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2022, September 30). Homelessness Assistance Programs, Available online: https:\/\/www.hudexchange.info\/homelessness-assistance\/."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Department for Communities and Local Government (2015). Addressing Complex Needs: Improving Services for Vulnerable Homeless People."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Australian Government Productivity Commission (2021). Report on Government Services 2021: PART G, SECTION 19: Homelessness Services."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2019). Canada\u2019s National Housing Strategy\u2014A Place to Call Home."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1364557032000119616","article-title":"Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework","volume":"8","author":"Arksey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Aromataris, E., and Munn, Z. (2020). JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, JBI."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Aromataris, E., and Munn, Z. (2017). Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewer\u2019s Manual, The Joanna Briggs Institute."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munn, Z., Stern, C., Aromataris, E., Lockwood, C., and Jordan, Z. (2018). What kind of systematic review should I conduct? A proposed typology and guidance for systematic reviewers in the medical and health sciences. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-017-0468-4"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Veritas Health Innovation (2021). Covidence Systematic Review Software, Veritas Health Innovation."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Assessments, P. (2022, August 21). Pearson Assessments. Available online: https:\/\/www.pearsonassessments.com\/professional-assessments.html."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2022, October 10). Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. Available online: https:\/\/www.parinc.com\/."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6","article-title":"\u201cMini-mental state\u201d: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician","volume":"12","author":"Folstein","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1958.8.3.271","article-title":"Validity of the Trail Making Test as an Indicator of Organic Brain Damage","volume":"8","author":"Reitan","year":"1958","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center (2022, October 22). Screening for TBI Using the OSU TBI-ID Method. Available online: https:\/\/wexnermedical.osu.edu\/neurological-institute\/neuroscience-research-institute\/research-centers\/ohio-valley-center-for-brain-injury-prevention-and-rehabilitation\/for-professionals\/screening-for-tbi."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e31827df0b5","article-title":"Prevalence and screening of traumatic brain injury among veterans seeking mental health services","volume":"28","author":"Brenner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Gash, J. (2010). Nursing, Wayne State University."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1097\/01.HTR.0000300227.67748.77","article-title":"Initial Reliability and Validity of the Ohio State University TBI Identification Method","volume":"22","author":"Corrigan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854818765043","article-title":"Sensitivity and Specificity of the Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Identification Method to Neuropsychological Impairment","volume":"45","author":"Glover","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crim. Justice Behav."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arevalo-Rodriguez, I., Smailagic, N., i Figuls, M.R., Ciapponi, A., Sanchez-Perez, E., Giannakou, A., Pedraza, O.L., Bonfill Cosp, X., and Cullum, S. (2015). Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD010783.pub2"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Pratt, D.A. (2015). A Quantitative Review of Intellectual Functioning in the Ranges of Intellectual Disability and Borderline Intelligence for Adults Who Are Homeless: Implications for Identification, Service, and Prevention, Wheaton College Graduate School."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"129","article-title":"Trail Making Test errors in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia","volume":"23","author":"Ashendorf","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-018-4793-z","article-title":"Geriatric Conditions Among Formerly Homeless Older Adults Living in Permanent Supportive Housing","volume":"34","author":"Henwood","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1076\/1380-3395(200008)22:4;1-0;FT518","article-title":"Trail Making Test, Part B as a Measure of Executive Control: Validation Using a Set-Switching Paradigm","volume":"22","author":"Arbuthnott","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1207\/S15324826AN0902_5","article-title":"The Trail Making Test, Part B: Cognitive Flexibility or Ability to Maintain Set?","volume":"9","author":"Kortte","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s12207-019-09353-x","article-title":"The Importance of Demographically Adjusted Cutoffs: Age and Education Bias in Raw Score Cutoffs Within the Trail Making Test","volume":"12","author":"Abeare","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Inj. Law"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-161274","article-title":"An analysis of a digital variant of the Trail Making Test using machine learning techniques","volume":"25","author":"Dahmen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Technol. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2014.01.008","article-title":"Validating the traumatic brain injury-4 screening measure for veterans seeking mental health treatment with psychiatric inpatient and outpatient service utilization data","volume":"95","author":"Homaifar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2017.1376758","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury, psychiatric diagnoses, and suicide risk among Veterans seeking services related to homelessness","volume":"31","author":"Brenner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e3181a66356","article-title":"Reliability and Predictive Validity of the Ohio State University TBI Identification Method With Prisoners","volume":"24","author":"Bogner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.168.1.82","article-title":"Psychopathology, social and cognitive functioning in a hostel for homeless women","volume":"168","author":"Adams","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"40","article-title":"Is bipolar disorder associated with tramautic brain injury in the homeless?","volume":"52","author":"Bacciardi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Riv. Psichiatr."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4943(03)00043-8","article-title":"Characterizing the elderly homeless: A 10-year study in Israel","volume":"37","author":"Barak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1177\/002204260403400401","article-title":"Gender Differences in the Rehospitalization of Substance Abusers Among Homeless Military Veterans","volume":"34","author":"Benda","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Drug Issues"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0b013e3181f97dff","article-title":"Homelessness and neuropsychological impairment: Preliminary analysis of adults entering outpatient psychiatric treatment","volume":"198","author":"Bousman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.169.4.434","article-title":"Cognitive function and duration of rooflessness in entrants to a hostel for homeless men","volume":"169","author":"Bremner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-011-1848-9","article-title":"Geriatric syndromes in older homeless adults","volume":"27","author":"Brown","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"757","article-title":"Geriatric Conditions in a Population-Based Sample of Older Homeless Adults","volume":"57","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.51.4.520","article-title":"Prevalence of cognitive impairment among homeless people in inner Sydney","volume":"51","author":"Buhrich","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1300\/J069v12n01_06","article-title":"Age at onset of alcoholism as a predictor of homelessness and drinking severity","volume":"12","author":"Castaneda","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Addict. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"16","article-title":"Cognitive deficits and their remediation in the homeless","volume":"15","author":"Cotman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Davidson, D. (2007). Prefrontal Cortical Function in the Adult Chronically Homeless. [Ph.D. Thesis, George Mason University]."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Distefano, R. (2020). Autonomy Support in Parents and Young Children Experiencing Homelessness: A Mixed Method Approach. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota]."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Duerksen, C.L. (1994). Differences between Domiciled and Undomiciled Men on Measures of Executive Functioning. [Ph.D. Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology]."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"40","article-title":"Borderline Intellectual Functioning and Lifetime Duration of Homelessness among Homeless Adults with Mental Illness","volume":"14","author":"Durbin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Healthcare Policy"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-004-0543-9","article-title":"Three year course and outcome of mental illness in homeless men\u2014A prospective longitudinal study based on a representative sample","volume":"255","author":"Fichter","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psych. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.41.6.672","article-title":"Neuropsychological Testing of Homeless Mentally Ill Veterans","volume":"41","author":"Foulks","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2014.963519","article-title":"Neurocognitive profiles of marginally housed persons with comorbid substance dependence, viral infection, and psychiatric illness","volume":"36","author":"Gicas","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acy066","article-title":"Volumes of the Hippocampal Formation Differentiate Component Processes of Memory in a Community Sample of Homeless and Marginally Housed Persons","volume":"34","author":"Gicas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. Off. J. Natl. Acad. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-017-0133-7","article-title":"Family reintegration of homeless in Maputo and Matola: A descriptive study","volume":"11","author":"Gouveia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Syst."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1007\/s004060050080","article-title":"Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders among homeless people in a southeast city in Brazil","volume":"249","author":"Heckert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psych. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.002","article-title":"Factors associated with cognitive impairment in a cohort of older homeless adults: Results from the HOPE HOME study","volume":"178","author":"Hurstak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1080\/02699050802590353","article-title":"Screening for traumatic brain injury","volume":"23","author":"Hux","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"1110","article-title":"Identification of cognitive impairment and mental illness in elderly homeless men: Before and after access to primary health care","volume":"55","author":"Joyce","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/32.4.457","article-title":"Housing emergencies and the etiology of homelessness among the urban elderly","volume":"32","author":"Keigher","year":"1992","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.2010.61.8.841","article-title":"Co-occurring Disorders and Learning Difficulties: Client Perspectives From Two Community-Based Programs","volume":"61","author":"Keyser","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2018.02.023","article-title":"Clinical and cognitive correlates of unsheltered status in homeless persons with psychotic disorders","volume":"197","author":"Llerena","year":"2018","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-003-0666-8","article-title":"Mental illness in an adult sample admitted to public hostels in the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Brazil","volume":"38","author":"Lovisi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302087","article-title":"Adverse Outcomes Among Homeless Adolescents and Young Adults Who Report a History of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"104","author":"Mackelprang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.54.9.1219","article-title":"Rehab Rounds: Cognitive Remediation in the Supportive Housing Setting","volume":"54","author":"Medalia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000741","article-title":"Cognitive Skills Training for Homeless Transition-Age Youth: Feasibility and Pilot Efficacy of a Community Based Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"205","author":"Medalia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e038443","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-038443","article-title":"Effect of Housing First on violence-related traumatic brain injury in adults with experiences of homelessness and mental illness: Findings from the at Home\/Chez Soi randomised trial, Toronto site","volume":"10","author":"Lachaud","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Monn, A.R. (2016). Intergenerational Processess in Homeless Families Linking Parent Executive Function, Parenting Quality, and Child Executive Function. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota]."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1007\/s001270050088","article-title":"Differential patterns of mental disorders among the homeless in Madrid (Spain) and Los Angeles (USA)","volume":"33","author":"Munoz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"81","article-title":"Chronic Physical Health Conditions among Homeless","volume":"8","author":"Nikoo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Health Disparities Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E19","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000262","article-title":"Incidence and Associated Risk Factors of Traumatic Brain Injury in a Cohort of Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Adults in 3 Canadian Cities","volume":"32","author":"Nikoo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishio, A., Yamamoto, M., Horita, R., Sado, T., Ueki, H., Watanabe, T., Uehara, R., and Shioiri, T. (2015). Prevalence of mental illness, cognitive disability, and their overlap among the homeless in Nagoya, Japan. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138052"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12469","article-title":"Causes of homelessness prevalence: Relationship between homelessness and disability","volume":"71","author":"Nishio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1177\/1744629508100496","article-title":"Intellectual disability in homeless adults: A prevalence study","volume":"12","author":"Oakes","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Intellect. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2012.667595","article-title":"The prevalence of traumatic brain injury in the homeless community in a UK city","volume":"26","author":"Oddy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/psyg.12211","article-title":"Elderly men in Tokyo homeless shelters who are suspected of having cognitive impairment","volume":"17","author":"Okamura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychogeriatrics"},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"34","article-title":"Risk of Suicide Among Veterans with Traumatic Brain Injury Experiencing Homelessness","volume":"25","author":"Palladino","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mil. Veterans\u2019 Health"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025382","article-title":"Neuropsychological and Cognitive Performance of Homeless Adults","volume":"44","author":"Pluck","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Behav. Sci.-Rev. Can. Sci. Comport."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"122","article-title":"Homelessness and cognitive impairment: An exploratory study in Tokyo, Japan","volume":"25","author":"Pluck","year":"2015","journal-title":"East Asian Arch. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12521","article-title":"Language ability and adult homelessness","volume":"55","author":"Pluck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1002\/oti.1328","article-title":"Assessing Executive and Community Functioning Among Homeless Persons with Substance Use Disorders Using the Executive Function Performance Test","volume":"19","year":"2012","journal-title":"Occup. Ther. Int."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1108\/HCS-05-2020-0007","article-title":"Premature frailty, geriatric conditions and multimorbidity among people experiencing homelessness: A cross-sectional observational study in a London hostel","volume":"23","author":"Shulman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hous. Care Support"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4316","article-title":"Older people experiencing homelessness show marked impairment on tests of frontal lobe function","volume":"31","author":"Rogoz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1006\/jado.1999.0224","article-title":"IQ scores among homeless older adolescents: Characteristics of intellectual performance and associations with psychosocial functioning","volume":"22","author":"Rohde","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1037\/cap0000211","article-title":"Examining the Cognitive and Mental Health Related Disability Rates Among the Homeless: Policy Implications of Changing the Definition of Disability in Ontario","volume":"61","author":"Roy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"39","article-title":"The Montefiore Community Children\u2019s Project: A controlled study of cognitive and emotional problems of homeless mothers and children","volume":"76","author":"Cohen","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Urban Health Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3301","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2017.5076","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury in a Community-Based Cohort of Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Individuals","volume":"34","author":"Schmitt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbm037","article-title":"The role of neurocognition and social context in predicting community functioning among formerly homeless seriously mentally ill persons","volume":"33","author":"Schutt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-199701000-00002","article-title":"Neuropsychological Function in Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals","volume":"185","author":"Seidman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2016.1168441","article-title":"Alcohol Gel Ingestion Among Homeless Eastern and Central Europeans in London: Assessing the Effects on Cognitive Functioning and Psychological Health","volume":"51","author":"Soar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"Solliday-Mcroy, C.L. (2002). Neuropsychological Functioning of Homeless Men in Shelter: An Exploratory Study. [Ph.D Thesis, Marquette University]."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igz049","article-title":"Cognition, Health, and Social Support of Formerly Homeless Older Adults in Permanent Supportive Housing","volume":"4","author":"Souza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Aging"},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"Synovec, C.E. (2018). Occupational Therapy in Health Care Agencies Serving Adults Experiencing Homelessness: Outcomes of a Pilot Model. [Ph.D. Thesis, Boston University]."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.44.12.1187","article-title":"Prevalence of Cognitive Impairment Among Homeless Men in a Shelter in Australia","volume":"44","author":"Teesson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2020.05.005","article-title":"Alcohol-related brain injury: An unrecognized problem in acute medicine","volume":"88","author":"Thompson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"E69","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury among men in an urban homeless shelter: Observational study of rates and mechanisms of injury","volume":"2","author":"Ennis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. Open Access J."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.11.049","article-title":"Neurocognition, psychiatric symptoms, and lifetime homelessness among veterans with a history of traumatic brain injury","volume":"271","author":"Twamley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2013.12111439","article-title":"The hotel study: Multimorbidity in a community sample living in marginal housing","volume":"170","author":"Panenka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2019.00270","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Marginally Housed Youth: Prevalence and Risk Factors","volume":"7","author":"Waclawik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yim, L.C., Leung, H.C., Chan, W.C., Lam, M.H., and Lim, V.W. (2015). Prevalence of Mental Illness among Homeless People in Hong Kong. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0140940"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e011412","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.118.011412","article-title":"Prevalence and Risk Factors of Brain Infarcts and Associations With Cognitive Performance in Tenants of Marginal Housing","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0899-3289(95)90007-1","article-title":"Perceptuomotor function of homeless males in alcohol rehabilitation","volume":"7","author":"Zlotnick","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3440\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:36:55Z","timestamp":1760121415000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3440"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"references-count":153,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20043440"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20043440","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]}}}