{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:54:23Z","timestamp":1760147663377,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]],"date-time":"2023-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia","award":["MF VMA 02\/23-25"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MF VMA 02\/23-25"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its resulting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a fast-moving pandemic. Diagnostic testing, aimed to identify patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, plays a key role in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic in different populations. (2) Methods: This retrospective cohort study aimed to investigate predictors associated with positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) SARS-CoV-2 test results in hospitalized patients, healthcare workers (HCWs), and military personnel (MP) during 2020, before the widespread availability of COVID-19 vaccines. Persons with a positive test result were compared with persons with a negative test result in three cohorts during the study period. (3) Results: A total of 6912 respondents were tested, and 1334 (19.3%) of them had positive PCR SARS-CoV-2 test results. Contact with a known COVID-19 case within 14 days (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.25\u20131.76), fever (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 3.66; 95% CI: 3.04\u20134.41), cough (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 1.91; 95% CI: 1.59\u20132.30), headache (p = 0.028; OR: 1.24; 95% CI: 1.02\u20131.50), and myalgia\/arthralgia (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 1.99; 95% CI: 1.65\u20132.42) were independently associated with positive PCR SARS-CoV-2 test results in the cohort of MP. Furthermore, fever (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 2.75; 95% CI: 1.83\u20134.13), cough (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 2.04; 95% CI: 1.32\u20133.13), headache (p = 0.008; OR: 1.76; 95% CI: 1.15\u20132.68), and myalgia\/arthralgia (p = 0.039; OR: 1.58; 95% CI: 1.02\u20132.45) were independently associated with positive PCR SARS-CoV-2 test results in the cohort of HCWs. Moreover, independent predictors of positive PCR SARS-CoV-2 test results in hospitalized patients were contact with a known COVID-19 case within 14 days (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 2.56; 95% CI: 1.71\u20133.83), fever (p &lt; 0.001; OR: 1.89; 95% CI: 1.38\u20132.59), pneumonia (p = 0.041; OR: 1.45; 95% CI: 1.01\u20132.09), and neurological diseases (p = 0.009; OR: 0.375; 95% CI: 0.18\u20130.78). (4) Conclusions: According to data gathered from cohorts of hospitalized patients, HCWs, and MP, before the widespread availability of COVID-19 vaccines in Serbia, we can conclude that predictors of positive PCR SARS-CoV-2 test results in MP and HCWs were similar. Accurate estimates of COVID-19 in different population groups are important for health authorities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043601","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T03:29:06Z","timestamp":1676863746000},"page":"3601","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Epidemiological Predictors of Positive SARS-CoV-2 Polymerase Chain Reaction Test in Three Cohorts: Hospitalized Patients, Healthcare Workers, and Military Population, Serbia, 2020"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2830-0673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vesna","family":"\u0160uljagi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Healthcare-Related Infection Control, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Medical Faculty, Military Medical Academy, University of Defence, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9678-2718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danijela","family":"\u0110uri\u0107-Petkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sr\u0111an","family":"Lazi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Faculty, Military Medical Academy, University of Defence, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9361-3778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jovan","family":"Mladenovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1450-5232","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bojan","family":"Rakonjac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Microbiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dolores","family":"Opa\u010di\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7047-0428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nenad","family":"Ljubenovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Biljana","family":"Milojkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Epidemiology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katarina","family":"Radojevi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Torlak Institute of Virology, Vaccines, and Serums, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ivana","family":"Nenezi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Healthcare-Related Infection Control, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5122-8094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nemanja","family":"Ran\u010di\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Faculty, Military Medical Academy, University of Defence, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Centre for Clinical Pharmacology, Military Medical Academy, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, December 28). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Situation Reports. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/situation-reports."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, December 28). Technical Guidance Publications. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/diseases\/novel-coronavirus-2019\/technical-guidance-publications."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-020-00875-7","article-title":"Nosocomial Transmission and Outbreaks of Coronavirus Disease 2019: The Need to Protect Both Patients and Healthcare Workers","volume":"10","author":"Abbas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23199","article-title":"Estimation of Differential Occupational Risk of COVID-19 by Comparing Risk Factors with Case Data by Occupational Group","volume":"64","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjmilitary-2020-001705","article-title":"Incidence of SARS-CoV-2\/COVID-19 in Military Personnel of Bolivia","volume":"167","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Mil Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1624","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usaa112","article-title":"Measures to Limit COVID-19 Outbreak Effects Among Military Personnel: Preliminary Data","volume":"185","author":"Segal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2022, December 28). Professional and Methodological Guidelines to Control the Introduction and Prevention of the Spread of the New Corona Virus SARS-CoV-2 in the Republic of Serbia. Available online: http:\/\/demo.paragraf.rs\/demo\/combined\/Old\/t\/t2020_04\/PP_004_2020_002.htm."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2022, March 30). COVID-19. Ministry of Health of Republic of Serbia. Available online: https:\/\/covid19.rs\/."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"During the State of Emergency (2022, December 30). American Chamber of Commerce in Serbia. Available online: https:\/\/www.amcham.rs\/combating-covid-19\/during-the-state-of-emergency.1112.html."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, F.-Y., Filler, R., Mathew, S., Buley, J., Iliaki, E., Bruno-Murtha, L.A., Osgood, R., Christophi, C.A., Fernandez-Montero, A., and Kales, S.N. (2020). COVID-19 Symptoms Predictive of Healthcare Workers\u2019 SARS-CoV-2 PCR Results. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3586670"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.2298\/VSP200829119J","article-title":"Medical Care of Patients in the Emergency Department of the Military Medical Academy in Belgrade during the Epidemic of COVID-19","volume":"78","author":"Jovanovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"VSP"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25757","article-title":"COVID-19 Patients\u2019 Clinical Characteristics, Discharge Rate, and Fatality Rate of Meta-Analysis","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korean Society of Infectious Diseases, Korean Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Korean Society of Epidemiology, Korean Society for Antimicrobial Therapy, Korean Society for Healthcare-Associated Infection Control and Prevention, and Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020). Report on the Epidemiological Features of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in the Republic of Korea from January 19 to March 2, 2020. J. Korean Med. Sci., 35, e112.","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2020.35.e112"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.02.018","article-title":"Characteristics of COVID-19 Infection in Beijing","volume":"80","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6924e2","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance-United States, January 22\u2013May 30, 2020","volume":"69","author":"Stokes","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-020-00304-9","article-title":"Impact of Sex and Gender on COVID-19 Outcomes in Europe","volume":"11","author":"Gebhard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Sex Differ."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Balon, B. (2014). The Position of Women in the Armed Forces of the Western Balkans, South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Bradas, S., Reljanovic, M., and Sekulovic, I. (2020). Uticaj Epidemije COVID-19 na Polozaj i Prava Radnica i Radnika u Srbiji [The Impact of the COVID-19 Epidemic on the Position and Rights of Workers in Serbia], Fondacija Centar za Demokratiju."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0962-9","article-title":"Age-Dependent Effects in the Transmission and Control of COVID-19 Epidemics","volume":"26","author":"Davies","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aba9757","article-title":"The Effect of Travel Restrictions on the Spread of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreak","volume":"368","author":"Chinazzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2022, December 30). Online Global Consultation on Contact Tracing for COVID-19, 9\u201311 June 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications-detail-redirect\/online-global-consultation-on-contact-tracing-for-covid-19-9-11-june-2020."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marin-Gomez, F.X., F\u00e0bregas-Escurriola, M., Segu\u00ed, F.L., P\u00e9rez, E.H., Camps, M.B., Pe\u00f1a, J.M., Comellas, A.R., and Vidal-Alaball, J. (2021). Assessing the Likelihood of Contracting COVID-19 Disease Based on a Predictive Tree Model: A Retrospective Cohort Study. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247995"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6922e2","article-title":"COVID-19 Monitoring and Response Among U.S. Air Force Basic Military Trainees-Texas, March-April 2020","volume":"69","author":"Marcus","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Tan, K.W.A., Pong, J.J.J., Teoh, J., Wahab, M.T., and Tan, C. (2021). COVID-19 Monitoring and Response for Military Bases in Singapore\u2014Perspectives and Lessons from January to June 2020. Mil. Med., Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC8690135\/."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"248","article-title":"Clinical Features of COVID-19 Infection in Patients Treated at a Large Veterans Affairs Medical Center","volume":"119","author":"Ebert","year":"2020","journal-title":"WMJ"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7477","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81377-3","article-title":"Clinical Features and Predictors of Severity in COVID-19 Patients with Critical Illness in Singapore","volume":"11","author":"Puah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2021.01.013","article-title":"COVID-19 and Healthcare Workers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"104","author":"Gholami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22131","DOI":"10.2196\/22131","article-title":"COVID-19 Outcome Prediction and Monitoring Solution for Military Hospitals in South Korea: Development and Evaluation of an Application","volume":"22","author":"Heo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.2298\/VSP180330114S","article-title":"Prehypertension and Hypertension Prevalence and Risk Factors among Adult Population in Republic of Serbia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"77","author":"Miljus","year":"2020","journal-title":"VSP"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.2298\/VSP210122030R","article-title":"Relationship between Plasma High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein and Traditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors among Active-Duty Military Personnel in the Republic of Serbia","volume":"79","author":"Ratkovic","year":"2022","journal-title":"VSP"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e60","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2009787","article-title":"Large-Vessel Stroke as a Presenting Feature of COVID-19 in the Young","volume":"382","author":"Oxley","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00084-5","article-title":"6-Month Neurological and Psychiatric Outcomes in 236\u2009379 Survivors of COVID-19: A Retrospective Cohort Study Using Electronic Health Records","volume":"8","author":"Taquet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3601\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:39:55Z","timestamp":1760121595000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/4\/3601"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20043601"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20043601","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]]}}}