{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T18:59:42Z","timestamp":1787165982301,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The current study used a family resilience approach to investigate why some offspring of sexual minority parents thrive despite homophobic stigmatization while others do not. Specifically, the study explored the role of two specific family functioning mechanisms (i.e., during adolescence, disclosure of offspring\u2019s personal life to their parents, and family compatibility) in the association between experienced homophobic stigmatization at age 17 and subjective well-being at age 25, among 71 offspring (37 females and 34 males, all cisgender) of the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS). The results showed that, overall, the offspring reported healthy subjective well-being as emerging adults. However, among NLLFS offspring with less family compatibility as adolescents, homophobic stigmatization was related to higher scores on negative affect when they were emerging adults. Psychological counseling that supports adolescent-parent communication may help prevent the negative effect of homophobic stigmatization on the subjective well-being of offspring with sexual minority parents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20065149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T05:22:59Z","timestamp":1678857779000},"page":"5149","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Long-Term Effects of Family Resilience on the Subjective Well-Being of Offspring in the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Henny M. W.","family":"Bos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Child Development and Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3696-9641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Carone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0524-4955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esther D.","family":"Rothblum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Williams Institute, Los Angeles School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"},{"name":"Department of Women\u2019s Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Audrey S.","family":"Koh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9001-4419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nanette K.","family":"Gartrell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Child Development and Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Williams Institute, Los Angeles School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/1550428X.2013.869486","article-title":"Children and adolescents with same-gender parents: A meta-analytic approach in assessing outcomes","volume":"11","author":"Fedewa","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. GLBT Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1037\/sgd0000203","article-title":"No differences? Meta-analytic comparisons of psychological adjustment in children of gay fathers and heterosexual parents","volume":"4","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Sex. Orientat. Gend. Divers."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12296","article-title":"Family resilience amid stigma and discrimination: A conceptual model for families headed by same-sex parents","volume":"67","author":"Prendergast","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fam. Relat."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez, M.I., Stackhouse, E.W., Keese, J., and Thompson, C.G. (2022). A meta-analysis examining the relationship between parents\u2019 sexual orientation and children\u2019s developmental outcomes. J. Fam. Stud., 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1080\/13229400.2022.2060121"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1002\/casp.780","article-title":"Framing heterosexism in lesbian families: A preliminary examination of resilient coping 1","volume":"14","author":"Litovich","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Goldberg, A.E., and Allen, K.R. (2020). LGBT-Parent Families: Possibilities for New Research and Implications for Practice, Springer. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-015-0353-6","article-title":"Microaggressions, feelings of difference, and resilience among adopted children with sexual minority parents","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1037\/sgd0000325","article-title":"Gay fathers by surrogacy: Prejudice, parenting, and well- being of female and male children","volume":"6","author":"Green","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Sex. Orientat. Gend. Divers."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1080\/1550428X.2013.781907","article-title":"Recalled social experiences and current psychological adjustment among adults reared by gay and lesbian parents","volume":"9","author":"Lick","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. GLBT Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1904","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000571","article-title":"Italian gay father families formed by surrogacy: Parenting, stigmatization, and children\u2019s psychological adjustment","volume":"54","author":"Carone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1080\/13691050701601702","article-title":"Children in planned lesbian families: Stigmatisation, psychological adjustment and protective factors","volume":"10","author":"Bos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cult. Health Sex."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1080\/0264683021000033165","article-title":"What does it mean for youngsters to grow up in a lesbian family created by means of donor insemination?","volume":"20","author":"Vanfraussen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Infant Psychol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1037\/h0087823","article-title":"The National Lesbian Family Study: 3. Interviews with mothers of five-year-olds","volume":"70","author":"Gartrell","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1037\/0002-9432.75.4.518","article-title":"The National Lesbian Family Study: 4. Interviews with the 10-year-old children","volume":"75","author":"Gartrell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-3153","article-title":"The US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: Psychological adjustment of 17-year-old adolescents","volume":"126","author":"Gartrell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/sipr.12012","article-title":"A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and social exclusion: Intergroup processes, social-cognitive development, and moral reasoning","volume":"9","author":"Rutland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Issues Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.674","article-title":"Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence","volume":"129","author":"Meyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1495","article-title":"Sexual attraction, sexual identity, and same-sex sexual experiences of adult offspring in the US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study","volume":"48","author":"Gartrell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Sex. Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2012.301069","article-title":"Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities","volume":"103","author":"Hatzenbuehler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1080\/10894160802278630","article-title":"The USA national longitudinal lesbian family study: Homophobia, psychological adjustment, and protective factors","volume":"12","author":"Bos","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Lesbian Stud."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-020-01364-1","article-title":"Long-term effects of homophobic stigmatization during adolescence on problem behavior in emerging adult offspring of lesbian parents","volume":"50","author":"Bos","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0001020","article-title":"Helicopter parenting, emotional avoidant coping, mental health, and homophobic stigmatization among emerging adult offspring of lesbian parents","volume":"36","author":"Carone","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"McKenry, P., and Price, S. (2005). Families and Change: Coping with Stressful Events and Transitions, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siegel, M., Legler, M., Neziraj, F., Goldberg, A.E., and Zemp, M. (2022). Minority stress and positive identity aspects in members of LGBTQ+ parent families: Literature review and a study protocol for a mixed-methods evidence synthesis. Children, 9.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/a35cy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12205","article-title":"Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth","volume":"85","author":"Masten","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/jftr.12255","article-title":"Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise","volume":"10","author":"Masten","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Fam. Theory Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"A critical review of resilience theory and its relevance for social work","volume":"54","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Work."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-022-01588-3","article-title":"Peer microaggressions and social skills among school-age children of sexual minority parents through assisted reproduction: Moderation via the child\u2013teacher relationship","volume":"51","author":"Carone","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1037\/sgd0000187","article-title":"School experiences of young children and their lesbian and gay adoptive parents","volume":"3","author":"Farr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Sex. Orientat. Gend. Divers."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Walsh, F. (2006). Strengthening Family Resilience, Guilford."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1080\/10522158.2017.1410267","article-title":"Enhancing relationship skills and couple functioning with mobile technology: An evaluation of the love every day mobile intervention","volume":"21","author":"Birney","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Fam. Soc. Work."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1080\/13575279.2020.1792838","article-title":"A review of family resilience: Understanding the concept and operationalization challenges to inform research and practice","volume":"26","author":"Liebenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Care Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.54.6.1063","article-title":"Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales","volume":"54","author":"Watson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1511\/2003.26.330","article-title":"The value of positive emotions: The emerging science of positive psychology is coming to understand why it\u2019s good to feel good","volume":"91","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2007.09.004","article-title":"Excluded emotions: The role of anger in antisocial responses to ostracism","volume":"44","author":"Chow","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.08.006","article-title":"Everyday discrimination and mood and substance use disorders: A latent profile analysis with African Americans and Caribbean Blacks","volume":"40","author":"Clark","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-016-9793-z","article-title":"Past racial discrimination exacerbates the effects of racial exclusion on negative affect, perceived control, and alcohol-risk cognitions among Black young adults","volume":"40","author":"Stock","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-3588.2010.00577.x","article-title":"Adolescent family factors promoting healthy adult functioning: A longitudinal community study","volume":"16","author":"Paradis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Child. Adolesc. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/1550428X.2020.1861573","article-title":"Overview of the 35-year US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study and its 92% retention rate","volume":"17","author":"Gartrell","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. GLBT Fam. Stud."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Topolski, T.D., Edwards, T.C., and Patrick, D.L. (2002). User\u2019s Manual and Interpretation Guide for the Youth Quality of Life (YQOL) Instrument, University of Washington, Department of Health Services. Available online: https:\/\/usermanual.wiki\/Document\/manualyqol.1603682110\/help."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1758-0854.2010.01035.x","article-title":"Well-being assessment: An evaluation of well-being scales for public health and population estimates of well-being among US adults","volume":"2","author":"Kobau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1027\/\/1015-5759.19.2.131","article-title":"Factorial and construct validity of the Italian Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)","volume":"19","author":"Terraciano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2012-0957","article-title":"Structural validity and reliability of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): Evidence from a large Brazilian community sample","volume":"35","author":"Carvalho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Braz. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021). R: A Langzuage and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Aiken, L.S., West, S.G., and Reno, R.R. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions, Sage."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.51.1.115","article-title":"Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research","volume":"51","author":"Frazier","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"88","article-title":"Contemporary advances and classic advice for analyzing mediating and moderating variables","volume":"71","author":"Dearing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.3.924","article-title":"Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations","volume":"41","author":"Hayes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Flores, A.R. (2019). Social Acceptance of LGBT People in 174 Countries: 1981 to 2017, University of California, Los Angeles School of Law Williams Institute. Available online: https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/Global-Acceptance-Index-LGBT-Oct-2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.10019","article-title":"Understanding family resilience","volume":"58","author":"Patterson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"e315","article-title":"Parent\u2013adolescent interaction quality and adolescent affect\u2014An experience sampling study on effect heterogeneity","volume":"93","author":"Boele","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000125","article-title":"The ups and downs of being lesbian, gay, and bisexual: A daily experience perspective on minority stress and support processes","volume":"63","author":"Mohr","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579400003035","article-title":"Developmental systems and psychopathology","volume":"12","author":"Sameroff","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12106","article-title":"Family resilience: Moving into the third wave","volume":"64","author":"Henry","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fam. Relat."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"2","article-title":"Families under stress: What makes them resilient","volume":"89","author":"McCubbin","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Fam. Consum. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-020-01323-w","article-title":"The link between parental support and adolescent negative mood in daily life: Between-person heterogeneity in within-person processes","volume":"50","author":"Janssen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Kalmijn, M., and Hornstra, M. (2020). A Survey of Adult Children and Their Family Relationships in the Netherlands: The Second Wave of the OKiN Anchor Survey, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1080\/10888691.2012.667344","article-title":"Mothers, fathers, families, and circumstances: Factors affecting children\u2019s adjustment","volume":"16","author":"Lamb","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and child development","volume":"53","author":"Bradley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldberg, A.E., and Allen, K.A. (2020). LGBTQ-Parent Families: Innovations in Research and Implications for Practice, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35610-1"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2016.4529","article-title":"Difference-in-differences analysis of the association between state same-sex marriage policies and adolescent suicide attempts","volume":"171","author":"Raifman","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.1958","article-title":"Legalization of same-sex marriage and drop in adolescent suicide rates: Association but not causation\u2014Reply","volume":"171","author":"Raifman","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/6\/5149\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:55:19Z","timestamp":1760122519000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/6\/5149"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20065149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20065149","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]}}}