{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T11:45:11Z","timestamp":1791891911913,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":138,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]],"date-time":"2023-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683590400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20105770","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,10]],"date-time":"2023-05-10T01:57:51Z","timestamp":1683683871000},"page":"5770","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":164,"title":["Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4475-5539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Santoniccolo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5854-827X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tommaso","family":"Trombetta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2323-0290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Noemi","family":"Paradiso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4398-8683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Roll\u00e8","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.093008.100511","article-title":"Patterns of Gender Development","volume":"61","author":"Martin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2005.00833.x","article-title":"Young Children\u2019s Beliefs About the Relationship Between Gender and Aggressive Behavior","volume":"76","author":"Giles","year":"2005","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1006\/drev.1993.1007","article-title":"Developmental Differences in Children\u2019s Gender Schemata about Others: A Meta-analytic Review","volume":"13","author":"Signorella","year":"1993","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Stoller, R.J. (1968). Sex and Gender, Science House."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Lange, P., Kruglanski, A., and Higgins, E. (2012). Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, SAGE Publications Ltd.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446249222"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037215","article-title":"Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups\u2019 roles shape stereotypes","volume":"107","author":"Koenig","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramon, S., Lloyd, M., and Penhale, B. (2020). Gendered Domestic Violence and Abuse in Popular Culture (Emerald Studies in Popular Culture and Gender), Emerald Publishing Limited.","DOI":"10.1108\/9781838677817"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2014.03.299","article-title":"Domestic Violence and Newspaper: An Explorative Study","volume":"127","author":"Fazzino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc.-Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"8","article-title":"The representation of homophobia in two Italian daily newspapers","volume":"6","author":"Bellocchio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rom. J. Exp. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2017.10.006","article-title":"Sexting as the mirror on the wall: Body-esteem attribution, media models, and objectified-body consciousness","volume":"61","author":"Bianchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-017-0372-2","article-title":"The moderating effect of gender role on the relationships between gender and attitudes about body and eating in a sample of Italian adolescents","volume":"24","author":"Lampis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eat. Weight. Disord.-Stud. Anorex. Bulim. Obes."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Erikson, E. (1963). Youth: Change and Challenge, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis, Norton."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1080\/15283488.2018.1523732","article-title":"Erikson Online: Identity and Pseudospeciation in the Internet Age","volume":"18","author":"Kay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Identity"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532785XMEP0303_03","article-title":"Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication","volume":"3","author":"Bandura","year":"2001","journal-title":"Media Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1080\/15205436.1998.9677855","article-title":"Cultivation Analysis: An Overview","volume":"1","author":"Gerbner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mass Commun. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Two Decades of Cultivation Research: An Appraisal and Meta-Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Morgan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Int. Commun. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12128","article-title":"A Critical Analysis of Cultivation Theory: Cultivation","volume":"64","author":"Potter","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"SCOPUS (2022, November 17). Search Results Analysis\u2014Gender. Available online: https:\/\/www.scopus.com\/term\/analyzer.uri?sort=plf-f&src=s&sid=a0fd30c1ac2da4b7de405804af4eebb4&sot=a&sdt=a&sl=59&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28gender%29+AND+PUBYEAR+%3e+2011+AND+PUBYEAR+%3c+2023&origin=resultslist&count=10&analyzeResults=Analyze+results."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"SCOPUS (2022, November 17). Search Results Analysis\u2014Gender and Media Representations. Available online: https:\/\/www.scopus.com\/term\/analyzer.uri?sid=e3734cb8338d18fabd92427a58d31b69&origin=resultslist&src=s&s=%28TITLE-ABS-KEY%28gender%29+AND+TITLE-ABS-KEY%28media+OR+representation*%29%29+AND+PUBYEAR+%3e+2011&sort=plf-f&sdt=b&sot=b&sl=86&count=42579&analyzeResults=Analyze+results."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Auxier, B., and Sanderson, M. (2022, November 17). Social Media Use in 2021. Pew Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2021\/04\/07\/social-media-use-in-2021\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-devpsych-051120-010630","article-title":"Media and the Development of Gender Role Stereotypes","volume":"2","author":"Ward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"157","article-title":"Television Programming and Sex Stereotyping: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"19","author":"Allen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Int. Commun. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preiss, R.W., Gayle, B.M., Burrell, N., Allen, M., and Bryant, J. (2007). Mass Media Effects Research: Advances through Meta-Analysis, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203823453"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1080\/03637751.2021.2018475","article-title":"Social change, cultural resistance: A meta-analysis of the influence of television viewing on gender role attitudes","volume":"89","author":"Hermann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"American Psychological Association (2022). APA Dictionary of Psychology, American Psychological Association. Available online: https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/gender-stereotype."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2003.12.001","article-title":"When information does not deter stereotyping: Prescriptive stereotyping can foster bias under conditions that deter descriptive stereotyping","volume":"40","author":"Gill","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-6402.t01-1-00066","article-title":"What Women and Men Should Be, Shouldn\u2019t be, are Allowed to be, and don\u2019t Have to Be: The Contents of Prescriptive Gender Stereotypes","volume":"26","author":"Prentice","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2011.10.008","article-title":"Status incongruity and backlash effects: Defending the gender hierarchy motivates prejudice against female leaders","volume":"48","author":"Rudman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.128.5.699","article-title":"A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences","volume":"128","author":"Wood","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000494","article-title":"Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018","volume":"75","author":"Eagly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12017","article-title":"Penalizing Men Who Request a Family Leave: Is Flexibility Stigma a Femininity Stigma?","volume":"69","author":"Rudman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sullivan, J., Moss-Racusin, C., Lopez, M., and Williams, K. (2018). Backlash against gender stereotype-violating preschool children. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195503"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nussbaum, M.C. (1999). Sex & Social Justice, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195112108.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x","article-title":"Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women\u2019s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks","volume":"21","author":"Fredrickson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Zurbriggen, E.L., Collins, R.L., Lamb, S., Roberts, R.A., and Tolman, D.L. (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls: (542142009-010), American Psychological Association. Available online: http:\/\/doi.apa.org\/get-pe-doi.cfm?doi=10.1037\/e542142009-010."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1080\/00224499.2016.1142496","article-title":"Media and Sexualization: State of Empirical Research, 1995\u20132015","volume":"53","author":"Ward","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sex Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028247","article-title":"Peer sexual harassment and disordered eating in early adolescence","volume":"49","author":"Petersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-012-0183-x","article-title":"Sexy Dolls, Sexy Grade-Schoolers? Media & Maternal Influences on Young Girls\u2019 Self-Sexualization","volume":"67","author":"Starr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Zurbriggen, E.L., and Roberts, T.-A. (2013). The Sexualization of Girls and Girlhood: Causes, Consequences, and Resistance, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025419870611","article-title":"Sexualization and youth: Concepts, theories, and models","volume":"43","author":"Bigler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"European Institute for Gender Equality (2022, November 17). A Study of Collected Narratives on Gender Perceptions in the 27 EU Member States. Available online: https:\/\/eige.europa.eu\/publications\/study-collected-narratives-gender-perceptions-27-eu-member-states."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Global Media Monitoring Project (2022, November 17). GMMP 2020\u20132021 Final Reports. Available online: https:\/\/whomakesthenews.org\/gmmp-2020-final-reports\/."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1080\/17482798.2012.729150","article-title":"Gender Representations on Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, and Nickelodeon Broadcasts in the United States","volume":"7","author":"Hentges","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Child. Media"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1080\/15205436.2019.1664593","article-title":"A Content Analysis of Gender Representations in Preschool Children\u2019s Television","volume":"23","author":"Walsh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mass Commun. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2013.854509","article-title":"Constructing gender differences: Newspaper portrayals of male and female gymnasts at the 2012 Olympic Games","volume":"18","author":"Eagleman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sainz-De-Baranda, C., Ad\u00e1-Lameiras, A., and Blanco-Ruiz, M. (2020). Gender Differences in Sports News Coverage on Twitter. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17145199"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1080\/15205436.2017.1341533","article-title":"Television and Preadolescents\u2019 Objectified Dating Script: Consequences for Self- and Interpersonal Objectification","volume":"21","author":"Rousseau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mass Commun. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"319","article-title":"A Comparison of Selected \u2018Serious\u2019 and \u2018Popular\u2019 British, Canadian, and United States Newspaper Coverage of Female and Male Athletes Competing in the Centennial Olympic Games: Did Female Athletes Receive Equitable Coverage in the \u2018Games of the Women\u2019?","volume":"37","author":"Vincent","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2017.0376","article-title":"Representation of Women in Video Games: A Systematic Review of Literature in Consideration of Adult Female Wellbeing","volume":"21","author":"Gestos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cyberpsych. Behav. Soc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1108\/EJM-02-2019-0125","article-title":"Gender stereotypes in advertising have negative cross-gender effects","volume":"55","author":"Rosengren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mark."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP20744","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211057270","article-title":"Perceived Realism and Wishful Identification: College Students\u2019 Perceptions of Alcohol Ads and Their Intentions to Sexually Coerce with or Without Using Alcohol","volume":"37","author":"Hust","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022115597068","article-title":"Gender Stereotyping in Newspaper Advertisements: A Cross-Cultural Study","volume":"46","author":"Tartaglia","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1086\/713287","article-title":"Female Stereotypes in Print Ads: A Longitudinal Analysis from an Institutional Viewpoint","volume":"6","author":"Veloso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Consum. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1177\/14705931211035163","article-title":"How advertising got \u2018woke\u2019: The institutional role of advertising in the emergence of gender progressive market logics and practices","volume":"21","author":"Middleton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mark. Theory"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1080\/14680777.2018.1468797","article-title":"The effect of media sexism on women\u2019s political ambition: Evidence from a worldwide study","volume":"19","author":"Haraldsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fem. Media Stud."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00716","article-title":"Adolescent Girls\u2019 STEM Identity Formation and Media Images of STEM Professionals: Considering the Influence of Contextual Cues","volume":"8","author":"Steinke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casta\u00f1o, A.M., Fontanil, Y., and Garc\u00eda-Izquierdo, A.L. (2019). \u201cWhy Can\u2019t I Become a Manager?\u201d\u2014A Systematic Review of Gender Stereotypes and Organizational Discrimination. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16101813"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"289","article-title":"Adolescents\u2019 Modern Media Use and Beliefs about Masculine Gender Roles and Norms","volume":"99","author":"Scharrer","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mass Commun. Q."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025419862361","article-title":"Sexualized gender stereotypes predict girls\u2019 academic self-efficacy and motivation across middle school","volume":"43","author":"Brown","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/19317611.2010.524694","article-title":"Femininity Ideology and Sexual Health in Young Women: A focus on Sexual Knowledge, Embodiment, and Agency","volume":"23","author":"Curtin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sex. Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.2006.00265.x","article-title":"Looking Good, Sounding Good: Femininity Ideology and Adolescent Girls\u2019 Mental Health","volume":"30","author":"Tolman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000176","article-title":"Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes","volume":"64","author":"Wong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-016-0588-z","article-title":"Media and Modern Manhood: Testing Associations between Media Consumption and Young Men\u2019s Acceptance of Traditional Gender Ideologies","volume":"75","author":"Giaccardi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-006-9061-6","article-title":"Masculine Gender Roles Associated with Increased Sexual Risk and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration among Young Adult Men","volume":"83","author":"Santana","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Urban Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-019-09661-z","article-title":"The Social Dimensions of Intimate Partner Violence: A Qualitative Study with Male Perpetrators","volume":"24","author":"Rollero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex. Cult."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"8","article-title":"Gender and media representation","volume":"5","author":"Gerino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rom. J. Exp. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"249","article-title":"Objectification theory: Continuing contributions to feminist psychology","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Travis","year":"2018","journal-title":"APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women: History, Theory, and Battlegrounds"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calogero, R.M., Tantleff-Dunn, S., and Thompson, J.K. (2011). Self-Objectification in Women: Causes, Consequences, and Counteractions, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/12304-000"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2022.01.018","article-title":"Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among men: The U.S. Body Project I","volume":"41","author":"Frederick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030766","article-title":"In the eye of the beholder: Thin-ideal media affects some, but not most, viewers in a meta-analytic review of body dissatisfaction in women and men","volume":"2","author":"Ferguson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Popul. Media Cult."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1037\/vio0000148","article-title":"The development and psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale\u2014Perpetration Version","volume":"8","author":"Gervais","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-022-09949-7","article-title":"Enjoyment of Sexualization in Men and Women: Relationships with Ambivalent Sexism and Body Image Coping Strategies","volume":"26","author":"Rollero","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sex. Cult."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684313515185","article-title":"Objectifying Media: Their Effect on Gender Role Norms and Sexual Harassment of Women","volume":"38","author":"Galdi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167212436401","article-title":"Of Animals and Objects: Men\u2019s Implicit Dehumanization of Women and Likelihood of Sexual Aggression","volume":"38","author":"Rudman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797611434748","article-title":"Integrating Sexual Objectification with Object Versus Person Recognition: The Sexualized-Body-Inversion Hypothesis","volume":"23","author":"Bernard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-011-9958-8","article-title":"Tests of Objectification Theory in Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Community Samples: Mixed Evidence for Proposed Pathways","volume":"65","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1177\/03616843221115335","article-title":"Buffering an Objectifying Culture: Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Attachment Anxiety","volume":"46","author":"Jiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-005-3737-3","article-title":"Women Who Objectify Other Women: The Vicious Circle of Objectification?","volume":"52","author":"Strelan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.27.6.922","article-title":"Gender Differences in Sexual Assault Victimization among College Students","volume":"27","author":"Hines","year":"2012","journal-title":"Violence Vict."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1521\/jscp.2008.27.3.279","article-title":"Meta-Analyses of the Effects of Media Images on Men\u2019s Body-image Concerns","volume":"27","author":"Barlett","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Soc. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-018-0940-6","article-title":"Objectification, Masculinity, and Muscularity: A Test of Objectification Theory with Heterosexual Men","volume":"80","author":"Davids","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2164-4918.1981.tb00282.x","article-title":"Patterns of Gender Role Conflict and Strain: Sexism and Fear of Femininity in Men\u2019s Lives","volume":"60","year":"1981","journal-title":"Pers. Guid. J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.36.3.295","article-title":"Male role and gender role conflict: Relations to help seeking in men","volume":"36","author":"Good","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025923","article-title":"Drive for muscularity and help-seeking: The mediational role of gender role conflict, self-stigma, and attitudes","volume":"13","author":"Shepherd","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Men Masc."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagai, S. (2022). Does Male Gender Role Conflict Inhibit Help-Seeking?. Jpn. Psychol. Res.","DOI":"10.1111\/jpr.12413"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2022.02.002","article-title":"Sexual orientation differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I","volume":"41","author":"Frederick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/19359705.2019.1706683","article-title":"\u201cIt\u2019s all outward appearance-based attractions\u201d: A qualitative study of body image among a sample of young gay and bisexual men","volume":"24","author":"Tran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gay Lesbian Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2019.07.001","article-title":"Testing the Tripartite Influence Model among heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian women","volume":"30","author":"Hazzard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1177\/03616843211052525","article-title":"A Test of Objectification Theory with Sexual Minority Women","volume":"46","author":"Moradi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-016-0692-0","article-title":"Sexualization in U.S. Latina and White Girls\u2019 Preferred Children\u2019s Television Programs","volume":"77","author":"Wallander","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"23","article-title":"Increasingly Violent but Still Sexy: A Decade of Central Female Characters in Top-Grossing Hollywood and Bollywood Film Promotional Material","volume":"11","author":"Ghaznavi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"237462381562778","article-title":"\u201cHot, Black Leather, Whip\u201d: The (De)evolution of Female Protagonists in Action Cinema, 1960\u20132014","volume":"2","author":"Heldman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sex. Media Soc."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1037\/ppm0000006","article-title":"Embodying the moral code? Thirty years of Final Girls in slasher films","volume":"4","author":"Weaver","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Popul. Media Cult."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-020-09788-4","article-title":"Lady and the Vamp: Roles, Sexualization, and Brutalization of Women in Slasher Films","volume":"25","author":"Wellman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex. Cult."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farris, D.N., Compton, D.R., and Herrera, A.P. (2020). Gender, Sexuality and Race in the Digital Age, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-29855-5"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"373","article-title":"Sexuality and Entertainment Media","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Tolman","year":"2013","journal-title":"APA Handbook of Sexuality and Psychology: Contextual Approaches"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-009-9637-1","article-title":"Keeping Abreast of Hypersexuality: A Video Game Character Content Analysis","volume":"62","author":"Downs","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12237","article-title":"Sexy, Strong, and Secondary: A Content Analysis of Female Characters in Video Games across 31 Years: Female Game Characters across 31 Years","volume":"66","author":"Lynch","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Commun."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-013-0321-0","article-title":"Low-Cut Shirts and High-Heeled Shoes: Increased Sexualization across Time in Magazine Depictions of Girls","volume":"69","author":"Graff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1177\/1097184X13477866","article-title":"Sexualization of Adolescent Boys: Media Exposure and Boys\u2019 Internalization of Appearance Ideals, Self-Objectification, and Body Surveillance","volume":"16","author":"Vandenbosch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Men Masc."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-015-0548-z","article-title":"Contributions of Diverse Media to Self-Sexualization among Undergraduate Women and Men","volume":"74","author":"Ward","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1080\/08838151.2011.597469","article-title":"Check That Body! The Effects of Sexually Objectifying Music Videos on College Men\u2019s Sexual Beliefs","volume":"55","author":"Aubrey","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Broadcast. Electron. Media"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6199","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-021-01350-1","article-title":"Women and #MeToo in Italy: Internalized sexualization is associated with tolerance of sexual harassment and negative views of the #MeToo movement","volume":"40","author":"Moscatelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1177\/0272431614556889","article-title":"Internalized Sexualization and Its Relation to Sexualized Appearance, Body Surveillance, and Body Shame Among Early Adolescent Girls","volume":"36","author":"McKenney","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Early Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rollero, C. (2022). Mass Media Beauty Standards, Body Surveillance, and Relationship Satisfaction within Romantic Couples. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19073833"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.2007.00299.x","article-title":"The Proteus Effect: The Effect of Transformed Self-Representation on Behavior","volume":"33","author":"Yee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2012.12.027","article-title":"The embodiment of sexualized virtual selves: The Proteus effect and experiences of self-objectification via avatars","volume":"29","author":"Fox","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684314553578","article-title":"Sexualized Avatars Lead to Women\u2019s Self-Objectification and Acceptance of Rape Myths","volume":"39","author":"Fox","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1080\/15213269.2016.1142380","article-title":"Sexualized Video Game Avatars and Self-Objectification in Adolescents: The Role of Gender Congruency and Activation Frequency","volume":"20","author":"Vandenbosch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Media Psychol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2020.104051","article-title":"The effects of sexualized video game characters and character personalization on women\u2019s self-objectification and body satisfaction","volume":"92","author":"Skowronski","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1089\/g4h.2014.0055","article-title":"Playing a Videogame with a Sexualized Female Character Increases Adolescents\u2019 Rape Myth Acceptance and Tolerance toward Sexual Harassment","volume":"4","author":"Driesmans","year":"2015","journal-title":"Games Health J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-009-9683-8","article-title":"The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept","volume":"61","author":"Mastro","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107341","article-title":"Does sexualization in video games cause harm in players? A meta-analytic examination","volume":"135","author":"Ferguson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2021.12.002","article-title":"Social media and body image: Recent trends and future directions","volume":"45","author":"Vandenbosch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papageorgiou, A., Fisher, C., and Cross, D. (2022). \u201cWhy don\u2019t I look like her?\u201d How adolescent girls view social media and its connection to body image. BMC Women\u2019s Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-022-01845-4"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Michele, D., Guizzo, F., Canale, N., Fasoli, F., Carotta, F., Pollini, A., and Cadinu, M. (2023). #SexyBodyPositive: When Sexualization Does Not Undermine Young Women\u2019s Body Image. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20020991"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12291","article-title":"The Shaping of Science by Ideology: How Feminism Inspired, Led, and Constrained Scientific Understanding of Sex and Gender","volume":"74","author":"Eagly","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Wike, R., Poushter, J., Silver, L., Devlin, K., Fetterolf, J., Castillo, A., and Huang, C. (2022, November 17). Views on Gender Equality Across Europe. Pew Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/global\/2019\/10\/14\/gender-equality-2\/."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Minchkin, R. (2022, November 17). Most Americans Support Gender Equality, even if They Don\u2019t Identify as Feminists. Pew Research Center. Available online: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2020\/07\/14\/most-americans-support-gender-equality-even-if-they-dont-identify-as-feminists\/."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"European Institute for Gender Equality (2022, November 17). Gender Equality Index 2019. Work-Life Balance. Available online: https:\/\/eige.europa.eu\/publications\/gender-equality-index-2019-report\/women-dominate-part-time-employment-consigning-them-jobs-poorer-career-progression."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"European Institute for Gender Equality (2022, November 17). National Parliaments: Presidents and Members\u2014Gender Statistics Database. Available online: https:\/\/eige.europa.eu\/gender-statistics\/dgs\/indicator\/wmidm_pol_parl__wmid_natparl."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2016.08.002","article-title":"The role of media literacy in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: A systematic review","volume":"19","author":"McLean","year":"2016","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2008.11.001","article-title":"Is BodyThink an efficacious body image and self-esteem program? A controlled evaluation with adolescents","volume":"6","author":"Richardson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(00)00410-7","article-title":"Primary Prevention of Disordered Eating Among Preadolescent Girls: Feasibility and Short-term Effect of a Community-Based Intervention","volume":"100","author":"Sherwood","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golan, M., Hagay, N., and Tamir, S. (2013). The Effect of \u201cIn Favor of Myself\u201d: Preventive Program to Enhance Positive Self and Body Image among Adolescents. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0078223"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-019-01049-5","article-title":"The Effects of a Television Drama-Based Media Literacy Initiative on Taiwanese Adolescents\u2019 Gender Role Attitudes","volume":"82","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1080\/00913367.2018.1545269","article-title":"Effectiveness of a School-Based Media Literacy Curriculum in Encouraging Critical Attitudes about Advertising Content and Forms among Boys and Girls","volume":"47","author":"Sekarasih","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Advert."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2021.1956778","article-title":"The longstanding view of workers as objects: Antecedents and consequences of working objectification","volume":"33","author":"Baldissarri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"Temmann, L.J. (2019, January 4\u20136). Strong and Powerful or Sexy and Skinny? Effects of Objectifying Video Game Avatars in Virtual Reality. Media Psychology. In Proceedings of the 11th Conference of the Media Psychology Division, Chemnitz, Germany. Available online: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/44099137\/Strong_and_Powerful_or_Sexy_and_Skinny_Effects_of_Objectifying_Video_Game_Avatars_in_Virtual_Reality."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2022.01.010","article-title":"Demographic and sociocultural predictors of sexuality-related body image and sexual frequency: The U.S. Body Project I","volume":"41","author":"Frederick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684311426126","article-title":"Psychosocial Influences on Bisexual Women\u2019s Body Image: Negotiating Gender and Sexuality","volume":"37","author":"Chmielewski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.674","article-title":"Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence","volume":"129","author":"Meyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1037\/men0000043","article-title":"\u201cDo you even lift, bro?\u201d Objectification, minority stress, and body image concerns for sexual minority men","volume":"18","author":"Brewster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Men Masc."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684315575024","article-title":"Experiences of Sexual Objectification, Minority Stress, and Disordered Eating Among Sexual Minority Women","volume":"39","author":"Watson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bodyim.2020.08.004","article-title":"Body image and depressive symptoms among transgender and cisgender adults: Examining a model integrating the tripartite influence model and objectification theory","volume":"35","author":"Sabik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Body Image"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684312474800","article-title":"Worth the Weight: The Objectification of Overweight Versus Thin Targets","volume":"37","author":"Holland","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/10\/5770\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:32:26Z","timestamp":1760124746000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/10\/5770"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]]},"references-count":138,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20105770"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20105770","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]]}}}