{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:35:29Z","timestamp":1760150129197,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center","award":["61-02157-0018","61-00077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61-02157-0018","61-00077"]}]},{"name":"Thailand Health Promotion Institute","award":["61-02157-0018","61-00077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61-02157-0018","61-00077"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thailand has successfully forwarded Article 8, Protection from Exposure to Tobacco Smoke, of the World Health Organization\u2019s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC). It achieved its 100% smoke-free goals in public places in 2010, next pursuing other bans in outdoor places to lower particulate matter air pollution (PM2.5). Our aim was to expose the secondhand smoke levels in vehicles since SHS is a danger to everyone, but especially to children and youth. This is the first experimental study of its kind in Thailand. We measured PM2.5 for 20 min under four conditions in 10 typical Thai vehicles, including commonly used sedans and small pickup trucks. We used an established protocol with two real-time air monitoring instruments to record PM2.5 increases with different vehicle air exchange and air conditioning conditions. Monitoring was recorded in the vehicle\u2019s front and back seats. The most common Thai ventilation condition is all windows closed with fan\/air conditioning (AC) in operation because of Thai tropical conditions. Mean exposure levels were three and nearly five times (49 and 72 \u03bcg\/m3) the 24 h WHO standard of 15 \u03bcg\/m3 in the back and front seats, respectively. These high PM2.5 exposure levels warrant action to limit vehicle smoking for public health protection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20216970","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T06:19:58Z","timestamp":1698214798000},"page":"6970","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Air Pollution inside Vehicles: Making a Bad Situation Worse"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Naowarut","family":"Charoenca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Thailand Health Promotion Institute, Bangkok 10330, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephen L.","family":"Hamann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nipapun","family":"Kungskulniti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Thailand Health Promotion Institute, Bangkok 10330, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nopchanok","family":"Sangchai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Business Administration, Bangkok-Thonburi University, Bangkok 10170, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ratchayaporn","family":"Osot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Business Administration, Bangkok-Thonburi University, Bangkok 10170, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vijj","family":"Kasemsup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Suwanna","family":"Ruangkanchanasetr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Passara","family":"Jongkhajornpong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"US Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, and Office on Smoking and Health (2014). The Health Consequences of Smoking\u201350 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2057","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntw115","article-title":"Secondhand Smoke Enhances Lung Cancer Risk in Male Smokers: An Interaction","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, August 15). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. 19 December 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Pallini, T. (2023, May 27). When Smoking Got Banned on Planes Flying in the US: It Has Been 20 Years Since Smoking Was Completely Banned on All US Flights. Here Is How Smoking on Planes Went from Normal to Banned. Business Insider. Available online: https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/when-did-smoking-get-banned-on-planes-in-the-us-2020-2."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2011). WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: Guidelines for Implementation, World Health Organization. Article 5.3; Article 8; Articles 9 and 10; Article 11; Article 12; Article 13; Article 14."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2006.07.021","article-title":"Measuring Air Quality to Protect Children from Secondhand Smoke in Cars","volume":"31","author":"Rees","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2006.017459","article-title":"Environmental Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Motor Vehicles: A Preliminary Study","volume":"15","author":"Vardavas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1177\/1479972315575202","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Secondhand Smoke Exposure in A Car: Attributable Changes in Atmospheric and Biological Markers","volume":"12","author":"Raoof","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chron. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). WHO Report on The Global Tobacco Epidemic 2021: Addressing New and Emerging Products, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Villarreiz, D.C. (2023, June 18). SEATCA Smoke-Free Index: Implementation of Article 8 of The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in ASEAN Countries, 2020. Bangkok, Thailand. Available online: https:\/\/seatca.org\/dmdocuments\/Smoke-free%20Index_2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2011-050389","article-title":"Smoke-Free Air Policies: Past, Present and Future","volume":"21","author":"Hyland","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Termsirikulchai, L., Benjakul, S., Kengganpanich, M., Theskayan, N., and Nakju, S. (2008). Thailand Tobacco Control Country Profile, Tobacco Control Research and Knowledge Management Center."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.15171\/ijhpm.2018.47","article-title":"Stakeholder\u2019s Assessment of the Awareness and Effectiveness of Smoke-free Law in Thailand","volume":"7","author":"Kungskulniti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Policy Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"The Government Gazette (2017). The Tobacco Products Control Act of AD 2017."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/345329."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntp019","article-title":"An Experimental Investigation of Tobacco Smoke Pollution in Cars","volume":"11","author":"Sendzik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03326259","article-title":"Dynamic Behavior Modeling of Cigarette Smoke Particles Inside the Car Cabin with Different Ventilation Scenarios","volume":"8","author":"Saber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"TSI (2011). Sidepak Personal Aerosol Monitor Model AM510 User Guide, TSI Incorporated. Available online: https:\/\/tsi.com\/getmedia\/51f3ccb6-780e-4386-b8fb-60d688d37a18\/SidePak_AIM510_US_1980456-web?ext=.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004). Indoor Air Quality in Hospitality Venues Before and After Implementation of A Clean Indoor Air Law-Western New York, 2003. MMWR: Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 53, 1038\u20131041."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2023, May 15). Innovative Instrument Co., Ltd. Head Office: Bang Kaeo, Thailand. Available online: http:\/\/www.innovative-instrument.com."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2009). TSI TrakPro Data Analysis Software User\u2019s Guide, TSI Incorporated. Available online: https:\/\/www.fieldenvironmental.com\/assets\/files\/Manuals\/TSI%20TrakPro%20Users%20Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Milani, J. (2023, June 15). This Is the Most Important Pickup Truck Market in The World, and It Is Not America. HotCars. Available online: https:\/\/www.hotcars.com\/thailand-largest-pickup-truck-market-in-the-world\/."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amnuaylojaroen, T., Kaewkanchanawong, P., and Panpeng, P. (2023). Distribution and Meteorological Control of PM2.5 and Its Effect on Visibility in Northern Thailand. Atmosphere, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos14030538"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2011-050197","article-title":"Secondhand Smoke in Cars: Assessing Children\u2019s Potential Exposure During Typical Journey Conditions","volume":"21","author":"Semple","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00167608","article-title":"Secondhand Smoke Exposure in Cars and Respiratory Health Effects in Children","volume":"34","author":"Kabir","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckq097","article-title":"Support and Correlates of Support for Banning Smoking in Cars with Children: Findings from the ITC Four Country Survey","volume":"21","author":"Hitchman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2012-050531","article-title":"Particulate Mass and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Exposure from Secondhand Smoke in The Back Seat of A Vehicle","volume":"23","author":"Northcross","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2017-054092","article-title":"Prevalence of Invehicle Smoking and Secondhand Smoke Exposure in Uruguay","volume":"27","author":"Llambi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.01.003","article-title":"Passive Exposure to Pollutants from Conventional Cigarettes and New Electronic Smoking Devices (IQOS, E-Cigarette) in Passenger Cars","volume":"222","author":"Schober","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2019-213998","article-title":"Impact of Banning Smoking in Cars with Children on Exposure to Secondhand Smoke: A Natural Experiment in England and Scotland","volume":"75","author":"Laverty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e566","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(21)00097-9","article-title":"Effect of Smoke-Free Policies in Outdoor Areas and Private Places on Children\u2019s Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Respiratory Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"6","author":"Westenberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e579","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(21)00129-8","article-title":"Associations Between Smoke-Free Vehicle Legislation and Childhood Admissions to Hospital for Asthma in Scotland: An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis of Whole-Population Data","volume":"6","author":"Mackay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"100215","article-title":"Exposure to Secondhand Smoke in Vehicles among Canadian Adolescents: Years After the Adoption of Smoke-Free Car Laws","volume":"10","author":"Azagba","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addict. Behav. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2012-050877","article-title":"Do smoke-free policies in work and public places increase smoking in private venues?","volume":"23","author":"Blanch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130132","DOI":"10.5888\/pcd11.130132","article-title":"Prevalence of Smoke-Free Car and Home Rules in Maine Before and After Passage of A Smoke-Free Vehicle Law, 2007\u20132010","volume":"11","author":"Madden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prev. Chronic. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e040167","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-040167","article-title":"Assessing Public Support for Extending Smoke-Free Policies Beyond Enclosed Public Places and Workplaces: Protocol for A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Boderie","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2023, June 20). Time to Take Axe to PM2.5. Bangkok Post Editorial. Available online: https:\/\/www.bangkokpost.com\/opinion\/opinion\/2591304\/time-to-take-axe-to-pm2-5."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e539","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(21)00166-3","article-title":"Protecting Children from Tobacco-Related Harm in Private Vehicles. Comment","volume":"6","author":"Laverty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosen, L.J., Zucker, D.M., Gravely, S., Bitan, M., Rule, A.M., and Myers, V. (2023). Tobacco Smoke Exposure According to Location of Home Smoking in Israel: Findings from the Project Zero Exposure Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043523"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Team Airveda (2023, May 18). What Is PM2.5 and Why Is It Important? Ayurveda, Blog Post. Available online: https:\/\/www.airveda.com\/blog\/what-is-pm2-5-and-why-is-it-important."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, May 18). Fact Sheet. Household Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/household-air-pollution-and-health."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"United Nations Environment Programme (2019). Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific: Science-Based Solutions, UNEP. Available online: https:\/\/wedocs.unep.org\/20.500.11822\/32101."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Roser, M. (2023, June 27). Our World in Data. Data Review: How Many People Die from Air Pollution?. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/data-review-air-pollution-deaths."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57010","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP8099","article-title":"DNA Methylation in Babies Born to Nonsmoking Mothers Exposed to Secondhand Smoke during Pregnancy: An Epigenome-Wide Association Study","volume":"129","author":"Fuemmeler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amnuaylojaroen, T., and Parasin, N. (2023). Future Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to PM(2.5) in Different Age Groups of Children in Northern Thailand. Toxics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11030291"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500601","article-title":"Air Change Rates of Motor Vehicles and In-Vehicle Pollutant Concentrations from Secondhand Smoke","volume":"18","author":"Ott","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"235","article-title":"Exposure to secondhand and thirdhand smoke in private vehicles: Measurements in air and dust samples","volume":"18","author":"Continente","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/21\/6970\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:11:14Z","timestamp":1760130674000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/21\/6970"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20216970"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20216970","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]]}}}