{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:45:55Z","timestamp":1760150755584,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,15]],"date-time":"2023-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702598400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The impact of COVID-19 and the associated lockdown measures on people\u2019s physical and mental wellbeing, as well as their daily lives and functioning, has been extensively studied. This study takes the approach of investigating the consequences of COVID-19 on a national scale, considering sociodemographic factors. The main objective is to make a contribution to ongoing research by specifically examining how age, gender, and marital status influence the overall impact of COVID-19 and wellbeing indicators during the second lockdown period that was implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Greek population. The study involved a sample of 16,906 individuals of all age groups in Greece who completed an online questionnaire encompassing measurements related to personal wellbeing, the presence and search for meaning in life, positive relationships, as well as symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Additionally, to gauge the levels of the perceived COVID-19-related impact, a valid and reliable scale was developed. The results reveal that a higher perception of COVID-19 consequences is positively associated with psychological symptoms and the search for meaning in life, while being negatively correlated with personal wellbeing and the sense of meaning in life. In terms of individual differences, the findings indicate that unmarried individuals, young adults, and females tend to report higher levels of psychological symptoms, a greater search for meaning in life, and a heightened perception of COVID-19-related impact. These findings are analyzed in depth, and suggestions for potential directions for future research are put forth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20247182","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,15]],"date-time":"2023-12-15T08:12:57Z","timestamp":1702627977000},"page":"7182","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Individual Differences on Wellbeing Indices during the COVID-19 Quarantine in Greece: A National Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Christos","family":"Pezirkianidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Positive Psychology, Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social & Political Sciences, Syggrou Ave. 136, 17671 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3585-4773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina","family":"Parpoula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social & Political Sciences, Syggrou Ave. 136, 17671 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4916-9328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina","family":"Athanasiades","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katerina","family":"Flora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Western Macedonia, 50100 Kozani, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8028-7811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolaos","family":"Makris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primary Education, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0527-7143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Despina","family":"Moraitou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 10th km Thessaloniki-Thermi, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georgia","family":"Papantoniou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 10th km Thessaloniki-Thermi, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"},{"name":"Laboratory of Psychology, Department of Early Childhood Education, School of Education, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2133-4619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanos","family":"Vassilopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Sciences and Social Work, University of Patras, 26110 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7955-5751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Sini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Positive Psychology, Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social & Political Sciences, Syggrou Ave. 136, 17671 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anastassios","family":"Stalikas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Positive Psychology, Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social & Political Sciences, Syggrou Ave. 136, 17671 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijchp.2020.06.002","article-title":"Predicting adaptive and maladaptive responses to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak: A prospective longitudinal study","volume":"20","author":"Brailovskaia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"100196","article-title":"Prevalence of depression during the COVID-19 outbreak: A meta- analysis of community-based studies","volume":"21","author":"Olayab","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gnaa204","article-title":"Age differences in stress, life changes, and social ties during the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for psychological well-being","volume":"61","author":"Birditt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2021.02.059","article-title":"Anxiety, depression and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from a cross-sectional survey","volume":"137","author":"Turna","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solomou, I., and Constantinidou, F. (2020). Prevalence and predictors of anxiety and depression symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic and compliance with precautionary measures: Age and sex matter. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17144924"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2021.09.038","article-title":"Estimating influences of unemployment and underemployment on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Who suffers the most?","volume":"201","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105320971697","article-title":"Family support as a protective factor for attitudes toward social distancing and in preserving positive mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2013","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-021-01816-4","article-title":"Families in the COVID-19 pandemic: Parental stress, parent mental health and the occurrence of adverse childhood experiences\u2014Results of a representative survey in Germany","volume":"31","author":"Calvano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12571","article-title":"Parenting during COVID-19: A study of parents\u2019 experiences across gender and income levels","volume":"70","author":"Kerr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fam. Relat."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, December 03). Mental Health and COVID-19: Early Evidence of the Pandemics Impact. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-2019-nCoV-Sci_Brief-Mental_health-2022.1."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Dmour, Y., AlQaralleh, H., Garaj, V., and Clements-Croome, D. (2023). In the eye of the flourish wheel: An assessment of users\u2019 health, well-being and productivity in university research rooms. Intell. Build. Int., 1\u201326.","DOI":"10.1080\/17508975.2023.2188158"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"British Council for Officers (2023, December 03). Improving Productivity in the Workplace: Lessons Learnt and Insights from the Whole Life Performance Plus Project. Available online: www.emcoruk.com\/workplace_productivity.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"British Council for Offices (2023, December 03). Wellness Matters. Available online: https:\/\/www.bco.org.uk\/HealthWellbeing\/WellnessMatters.aspx."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appel-Meulenbroek, R., and Danivska, V. (2021). A Handbook of Theories on Designing Alignment between People and the Office Environment, Routledge.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003128830"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Graham, C., Comim, F., and Anand, P. (2023, December 03). The Global Analysis of Wellbeing Report 2018: From Measurement to Policy and Practice. Oxford Foundation of Knowledge Exchange. Available online: http:\/\/eprints.lse.ac.uk\/90234\/1\/Anand__global-analysis-of-wellbeing.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Rees, A., Maxwell, N., Grey, J., Corliss, C., Barton, A., Khan, A., O\u2019Donnell, C., and Silverwood, V. (2019). Final Report for Evaluation Fostering Wellbeing Programme, Cardiff University. Available online: https:\/\/orca.cardiff.ac.uk\/id\/eprint\/128577\/1\/Final%20Report%20for%20Evaluation%20of%20Fostering%20Wellbeing%20Programme%205th%20December.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"UK Green Building Council (2023, December 03). Health and Wellbeing in Homes. Available online: https:\/\/ukgbc.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/12\/Healthy-Homes-Full-Report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"UK Green Building Council (2023, December 03). UKGBC Wellbeing Lab Offices: A Compendium of Experience. Available online: https:\/\/ukgbc.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/12\/UK-GBC-Wellbeing-Lab-offices-WEB.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Helliwell, J., Layard, R., Sachs, J., and De Neve, J.-M. (2020). World Happiness Report 2020, Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Available online: https:\/\/worldhappiness.report\/ed\/2020\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Khor, S., Cummins, R.A., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Capic, T., Olsson, C.A., and Hutchinson, D. (2023, December 03). Australian Unity Wellbeing Index: Report 35.1 Ageing Well: Healthy Transitions to Retirement. Geelong: Australian Centre on Quality of Life, School of Psychology, Deakin University. Available online: http:\/\/www.acqol.com.au\/projects#reports."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Helliwell, J., Layard, R., Sachs, J., and De Neve, J.-M. (2021). World Happiness Report 2021, Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Available online: https:\/\/worldhappiness.report\/ed\/2021\/."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Helliwell, J., Layard, R., Sachs, J., De Neve, J.-M., Aknin, L.B., and Wang, S. (2022). World Happiness Report 2022, Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Available online: https:\/\/worldhappiness.report\/ed\/2022\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Cummins, R.A., Mead, R., and The Australian Unity-Deakin University Wellbeing Research Partnership The Australian Unity Wellbeing Index 20th Anniversary Commemorative Edition, Australian Unity and Deakin University. Available online: https:\/\/www.australianunity.com.au\/-\/media\/rebrandwellbeing\/documents\/auwi20_interactive_report."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Wong, P.T.P. (2012). The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications, Routledge\/Taylor & Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.5964\/ejcop.v4i1.75","article-title":"The relationship between meaning in life, emotions and psychological illness: The moderating role of the effects of the economic crisis","volume":"4","author":"Pezirkianidis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slade, M., Oades, L., and Jarden, A. (2017). Wellbeing, Recovery, and Mental Health, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781316339275"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2021.110952","article-title":"The role of uncertainty tolerance and meaning in life on depression and anxiety throughout Covid-19 pandemic","volume":"179","author":"Korkmaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1080\/15325024.2020.1765098","article-title":"Reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic: The influence of meaning in life, life satisfaction, and assumptions on world orderliness and positivity","volume":"25","author":"Czarnecka","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Loss Trauma"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2020.110592","article-title":"The relationships between resilience of the adults affected by the covid pandemic in Turkey and Covid-19 fear, meaning in life, life satisfaction, intolerance of uncertainty and hope","volume":"172","author":"Tagay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/bjhp.12492","article-title":"Longitudinal associations of meaning in life and psychosocial adjustment to the COVID-19 outbreak in China","volume":"26","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Vries, L., Van de Weijer, M., Pelt, D., Ligthart, L., WIllemsen, G., Boomsma, D., de Geus, E., and Bartels, M. (PsyArXiv, 2021). Individual differences in the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on optimism and meaning in life, PsyArXiv, preprint.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/b2ge6"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5502\/ijw.v4i1.4","article-title":"Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing","volume":"4","author":"Hone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Wellbeing"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Seligman, M.E.P. (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being, Free Press."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wpsyc.2012.05.006","article-title":"Positive mental health: Is there a cross-cultural definition?","volume":"11","author":"Vaillant","year":"2012","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, December 03). World Health Organization Coronavirus Press Briefing. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/docs\/default-source\/coronaviruse\/transcripts\/who-audioemergencies-coronavirus-press-conference-full20mar2020.pdf?sfvrsn=1eafbff_0."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-07213-4","article-title":"Affective touch perception and longing for touch during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"12","author":"Meijer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2021.1875195","article-title":"Loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"25","author":"Dahlberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1177\/00048674211031489","article-title":"COVID-19 and loneliness: A rapid systematic review","volume":"55","author":"Pai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1525\/collabra.365","article-title":"Did social connection decline during the first wave of COVID-19? The role of extraversion","volume":"6","author":"Folk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Collabra Psychol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pieh, C., O\u00b4 Rourke, T., Budimir, S., and Probst, T. (2020). Relationship quality and mental health during COVID-19 lockdown. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0238906"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3381","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291721000039","article-title":"Social relationships and depression during the COVID-19 lockdown: Longitudinal analysis of the COVID-19 Social Study","volume":"52","author":"Sommerlad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.10.061","article-title":"Self-reported changes in anxiety, depression and suicidality during the COVID-19 lockdown in Greece","volume":"279","author":"Fountoulakis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/ijop.12767","article-title":"The psychological effect of COVID-19 quarantine on Greek young adults: Risk factors and the protective role of daily routine and altruism","volume":"57","author":"Kornilaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"e20182","article-title":"Dehumanization of hospitalized patients and self-dehumanization by health professionals and the general population in Greece","volume":"13","author":"Lekka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"e22473","article-title":"Health professionals in a COVID-19 reference hospital: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) levels and their associations with psychological resilience and quality of life","volume":"14","author":"Lekka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.37256\/ser.212021618","article-title":"Psychological resilience hope and adaptability as protective factors in times of crisis: A study in Greek and Cypriot society during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"2","author":"Demetriou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anastasiou, E., and Duquenne, M.N. (2021). First-wave COVID-19 pandemic in Greece: The role of demographic, social, and geographical factors in life satisfaction during lockdown. Soc. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci10060186"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"112","article-title":"The relationships between gratitude, forgiveness, hope, and subjective wellbeing during the COVID-19 lockdown","volume":"18","author":"Tilkeridou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hell. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasileiou, D., Moraitou, D., Papaliagkas, V., Pezirkianidis, C., Stalikas, A., Papantoniou, G., and Sofologi, M. (2021). The relationships between character strengths and subjective wellbeing: Evidence from Greece under lockdown during COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182010868"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1111\/chso.12605","article-title":"The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on children\u2019s and adolescents\u2019 mental health in Greece","volume":"37","author":"Magklara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/inm.12945","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress symptoms during the first and second COVID-19 lockdown in Greece: Rates, risk, and protective factors","volume":"31","author":"Kalaitzaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1002\/ijop.12750","article-title":"Posttraumatic symptoms, posttraumatic growth, and internal resources among the general population in Greece: A nation-wide survey amid the first COVID-19 lockdown","volume":"56","author":"Kalaitzaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.22365\/jpsych.2021.041","article-title":"The impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Greek population: Suicidal ideation during the first and second lockdown","volume":"32","author":"Gournellis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatriki"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kavvadas, D., Kavvada, A., Karachrysafi, S., Papaliagkas, V., Cheristanidis, S., Chatzidimitriou, M., and Papamitsou, T. (2022). Stress, anxiety and depression prevalence among greek university students during COVID-19 pandemic: A two-year survey. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11154263"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.12.114","article-title":"The effects of perceived psychological, educational, and financial impact of COVID-19 pandemic on Greek university students\u2019 satisfaction with life through Mental Health","volume":"300","author":"Kokkinos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.2307\/3090197","article-title":"The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life","volume":"43","author":"Keyes","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maggino, F. (2016). A Life Devoted to Quality of Life: Festschrift in Honor of Alex C. Michalos, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-20568-7"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1352\/0895-8017(2005)110[298:CSOQOL]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Cross-cultural study of quality of life indicators","volume":"110","author":"Schalock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Ment. Retard."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durbano, F. (2015). A Fresh Look at Anxiety Disorders, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/59525"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Hellenic Statistical Authority (2023, December 03). 2011 Population and Housing Census: Demographic and Social Characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population\u2014Housing Census Revision of 20\/3\/2014. Available online: https:\/\/www.statistics.gr\/en\/statistics\/-\/publication\/SAM03\/-."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Smith, W.G. (2023, December 03). Does Gender Influence Online Survey Participation? A Record-Linkage Analysis of University Faculty Online Survey Response Behavior, Available online: https:\/\/eric.ed.gov\/?id=ED501717."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Galanakis, M., Pezirkianidis, C., and Stalikas, A. (2017). Basic Aspects of Psychometrics, Topos."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(94)00075-U","article-title":"The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories","volume":"33","author":"Lovibond","year":"1995","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2933","DOI":"10.4236\/psych.2018.915170","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) in a Greek sample","volume":"9","author":"Pezirkianidis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.4236\/psych.2021.127062","article-title":"Positive Relationships Questionnaire (PRQ): A pilot study","volume":"12","author":"Mitskidou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.53.1.80","article-title":"The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life","volume":"53","author":"Steger","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Couns. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.4236\/psych.2016.713148","article-title":"Validation of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) in a Greek sample","volume":"7","author":"Pezirkianidis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1177\/0253717620946439","article-title":"Measuring the impact of COVID-19 on mental health: A scoping review of the existing scales","volume":"42","author":"Chandu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalos, A. (2014). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-0753-5"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hinton, P., McMurray, I., and Brownlow, C. (2014). SPSS Explained, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315797298"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000074","article-title":"An empirical Kaiser criterion","volume":"22","author":"Braeken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327906mbr0102_10","article-title":"The scree test for the number of factors","volume":"1","author":"Cattell","year":"1966","journal-title":"Multivar. Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02293557","article-title":"Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations","volume":"41","author":"Velicer","year":"1976","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582352","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.582352","article-title":"Meaning in life and self-control buffer stress in times of COVID-19: Moderating and mediating effects with regard to mental distress","volume":"11","author":"Schnell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humphrey, A., and Vari, O. (2021). Meaning matters: Self-perceived meaning in life, Its predictors and psychological stressors associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Behav. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bs11040050"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Covid-19 pandemic and meaning in life","volume":"21","author":"Attoe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phronimon"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.03.035","article-title":"Gender differences in depression in 23 European countries. Cross-national variation in the gender gap in depression","volume":"71","author":"Bracke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588372","DOI":"10.3389\/fgwh.2020.588372","article-title":"Women\u2019s mental health in the time of COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"1","author":"Thibaut","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Glob. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e203976","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976","article-title":"Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"3","author":"Lai","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-020-01092-2","article-title":"The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women\u2019s mental health","volume":"23","author":"Almeida","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-016-0704-7","article-title":"The prevalence and incidence of perinatal anxiety disorders among women experiencing a medically complicated pregnancy","volume":"20","author":"Fairbrother","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1002\/imhj.21959","article-title":"When the bough breaks: A systematic review and meta-analysis of mental health symptoms in mothers of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"43","author":"Racine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infant Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E609","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.200634","article-title":"Health care practitioners\u2019 responsibility to address intimate partner violence related to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"192","author":"Bradley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. Med Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s10212-014-0234-5","article-title":"Gender and socioeconomic status differences in university students\u2019 perception of social support","volume":"30","author":"Tinajero","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1177\/0020764020925108","article-title":"Student mental health in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for further research and immediate solutions","volume":"66","author":"Grubic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.5.469","article-title":"Emerging adulthood: The theory of development from the late teens through the twenties","volume":"55","author":"Arnett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e053676","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-053676","article-title":"\u2018You\u2019re just there, alone in your room with your thoughts\u2019: A qualitative study about the psychosocial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among young people living in the UK","volume":"12","author":"McKinlay","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1002\/casp.2564","article-title":"Group-specific contact and sense of connectedness during the COVID-19 pandemic and its associations with psychological well-being, perceived stress, and work-life balance","volume":"32","author":"Landmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1111\/bjhp.12485","article-title":"Resilience during uncertainty? Greater social connectedness during COVID-19 lockdown is associated with reduced distress and fatigue","volume":"26","author":"Nitschke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587724","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.587724","article-title":"The impact of coping strategies and perceived family support on depressive and anxious symptomatology during the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) lockdown","volume":"11","author":"Mariani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786400","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.786400","article-title":"Association between time spent with family and loneliness among Japanese workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study","volume":"12","author":"Fujii","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Walsh, F. (2015). Strengthening Family Resilience, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000660","article-title":"Risk and resilience in family well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"75","author":"Prime","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.4236\/psych.2020.1111108","article-title":"The role of family resilience on parental well-being and resilience levels","volume":"11","author":"Aivalioti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/10664807211023875","article-title":"Family resilience during COVID-19 pandemic: A literature review","volume":"30","author":"Gayatri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fam. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12579","article-title":"Perceived changes in family life during COVID-19: The role of family size","volume":"70","author":"Canzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fam. Relat."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/24\/7182\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:39:18Z","timestamp":1760132358000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/20\/24\/7182"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,15]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph20247182"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20247182","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,15]]}}}