{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T12:55:04Z","timestamp":1792068904985,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]],"date-time":"2024-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The toxicity and carcinogenicity of hexavalent chromium via the inhalation route is well established. However, a scientific debate has arisen about the potential effects of oral exposure to chromium on human health. Epidemiological studies evaluating the connection between ingested chromium and adverse health effects on the general population are limited. In recent years, a wealth of biomonitoring studies has emerged evaluating the associations between chromium levels in body fluids and tissues and health outcomes. This systematic review brings together epidemiological and biomonitoring evidence published over the past decade on the health effects of the general population related to oral exposure to chromium. In total, 65 studies were reviewed. There appears to be an inverse association between prenatal chromium exposure and normal fetal development. In adults, parameters of oxidative stress and biochemical alterations increase in response to chromium exposure, while effects on normal renal function are conflicting. Risks of urothelial carcinomas cannot be overlooked. However, findings regarding internal chromium concentrations and abnormalities in various tissues and systems are, in most cases, controversial. Environmental monitoring together with large cohort studies and biomonitoring with multiple biomarkers could fill the scientific gap.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21040406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]],"date-time":"2024-03-27T14:14:09Z","timestamp":1711548849000},"page":"406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Human Health Effects of Oral Exposure to Chromium: A Systematic Review of the Epidemiological Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5673-2214","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleni","family":"Sazakli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lab of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, GR 26504 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Cardarelli, F. 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