{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T08:56:14Z","timestamp":1792918574606,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]],"date-time":"2024-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713139200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Science","award":["KL2 TR001862"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KL2 TR001862"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Mental health disorders are the number one cause of maternal mortality and a significant maternal morbidity. This scoping review sought to understand the associations between social context and experiences during pregnancy and birth, biological indicators of stress and weathering, and perinatal mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs). Methods: A scoping review was performed using PRISMA-ScR guidance and JBI scoping review methodology. The search was conducted in OVID Medline and Embase. Results: This review identified 74 eligible English-language peer-reviewed original research articles. A majority of studies reported significant associations between social context, negative and stressful experiences in the prenatal period, and a higher incidence of diagnosis and symptoms of PMADs. Included studies reported significant associations between postpartum depression and prenatal stressors (n = 17), socioeconomic disadvantage (n = 14), negative birth experiences (n = 9), obstetric violence (n = 3), and mistreatment by maternity care providers (n = 3). Birth-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was positively associated with negative birth experiences (n = 11), obstetric violence (n = 1), mistreatment by the maternity care team (n = 1), socioeconomic disadvantage (n = 2), and prenatal stress (n = 1); and inverse association with supportiveness of the maternity care team (n = 5) and presence of a birth companion or doula (n = 4). Postpartum anxiety was significantly associated with negative birth experiences (n = 2) and prenatal stress (n = 3). Findings related to associations between biomarkers of stress and weathering, perinatal exposures, and PMADs (n = 14) had mixed significance. Conclusions: Postpartum mental health outcomes are linked with the prenatal social context and interactions with the maternity care team during pregnancy and birth. Respectful maternity care has the potential to reduce adverse postpartum mental health outcomes, especially for persons affected by systemic oppression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21040480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]],"date-time":"2024-04-15T11:53:53Z","timestamp":1713182033000},"page":"480","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["The Social Context of Pregnancy, Respectful Maternity Care, Biomarkers of Weathering, and Postpartum Mental Health Inequities: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5030-5644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bridget","family":"Basile-Ibrahim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, Yale University, Orange, CT 06477, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3163-9467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joan","family":"Combellick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, Yale University, Orange, CT 06477, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6150-7660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas L.","family":"Mead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Libraries, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alee","family":"Sorensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Nursing, Yale University, Orange, CT 06477, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0121-525X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janene","family":"Batten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvey Cushing\/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0938-7726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robyn","family":"Schafer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Advanced Nursing Practice, School of Nursing, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07107, USA"},{"name":"Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Trost, S., Beauregard, J., Chandra, G., Njie, F., Berry, J., Harvey, A., and Goodman, D.A. (2022). Pregnancy-Related Deaths: Data from Maternal Mortality Review Committees in 36 US States, 2017\u20132019. Education, 45."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Declercq, E., and Zephyrin, L. (2021). Severe Maternal Morbidity in the United States: A Primer. Commonw. Fund, 28."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2020.305619","article-title":"Financial Toll of Untreated Perinatal Mood and Anxiety Disorders among 2017 Births in the United States","volume":"110","author":"Luca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2021.12.008","article-title":"Healthcare Utilization and Costs Associated with Perinatal Depression among Medicaid Enrollees","volume":"62","author":"Pollack","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01663-6","article-title":"Mapping Global Prevalence of Depression among Postpartum Women","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1745506519844044","article-title":"Consequences of Maternal Postpartum Depression: A Systematic review of Maternal and Infant Outcomes","volume":"15","author":"Slomian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2017.4363","article-title":"Association of Persistent and Severe Postnatal Depression with Child Outcomes","volume":"75","author":"Netsi","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2020.8890","article-title":"Maternal Mortality among American Indian\/Alaska Native Women: A Scoping Review","volume":"30","author":"Heck","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-021-01169-6","article-title":"Impact of Maternal Trauma-Related Psychopathology and Life Stress on HPA Axis Stress Response","volume":"25","author":"Ramdas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2142","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2648.2010.05391.x","article-title":"Women\u2019s Perceptions and Experiences of a Traumatic Birth: A Meta-Ethnography","volume":"66","author":"Elmir","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogn.2019.02.004","article-title":"Synthesis of Mixed Research on Posttraumatic Stress Related to Traumatic Birth","volume":"48","author":"Beck","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-536X.2003.00215.x","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Women\u2019s Experience of Psychological Trauma during Childbirth","volume":"30","author":"Soet","year":"2003","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-536x.2000.00104.x","article-title":"Childbirth and the Development of Acute Trauma Symptoms: Incidence and Contributing Factors","volume":"27","author":"Creedy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2013.12.004","article-title":"Tormented by Ghosts from Their Past\u2019: A Meta-Synthesis to Explore the Psychosocial Implications of a Traumatic Birth on Maternal Well-Being","volume":"30","author":"Fenech","year":"2014","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reno, R., Burch, J., Stookey, J., Jackson, R., Joudeh, L., and Guendelman, S. (2021). Preterm Birth and Social Support Services for Prenatal Depression and Social Determinants. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255810"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Wadhwa, P.D., Entringer, S., Buss, C., and Lu, M.C. (2011). Clinics in Perinatology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.whi.2016.09.007","article-title":"Stressful Life Event Experiences of Pregnant Women in the United States: A Latent Class Analysis","volume":"27","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health Issues"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sonderlund, A.L., Schoenthaler, A., and Thilsing, T. (2021). The Association between Maternal Experiences of Interpersonal Discrimination and Adverse Birth Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18041465"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xagr.2021.100005","article-title":"Person-Centered Maternity Care and Postnatal Health: Associations with Maternal and Newborn Health Outcomes","volume":"1","author":"Sudhinaraset","year":"2021","journal-title":"AJOG Glob. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy-Moulton, K., Miller, S., Persson, P., Rossin-Slater, M., Wherry, L., and Aldana, G. (2022). Nber Working Paper Series Maternal and Infant Health Inequality: New Evidence from Linked Administrative Data.","DOI":"10.3386\/w30693"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1111\/ppe.12482","article-title":"Life-Course Neighbourhood Opportunity and Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Risk of Preterm Birth","volume":"32","author":"Pearl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogc.2019.02.009","article-title":"Postpartum Mental Health Disorders in Indigenous Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"41","author":"Black","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807235","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.807235","article-title":"Black Perinatal Mental Health: Prioritizing Maternal Mental Health to Optimize Infant Health and Wellness","volume":"13","author":"Estriplet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2017.04.008","article-title":"Exploring the Social Determinants of Racial\/Ethnic Disparities in Prenatal Care Utilization and Maternal Outcome","volume":"41","author":"Gadson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s12978-019-0729-2","article-title":"The Giving Voice to Mothers Study: Inequity and Mistreatment during Pregnancy and Childbirth in the United States","volume":"16","author":"Vedam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"164","article-title":"\u201cI Had to Fight for My VBAC\u201d: A Mixed Methods Exploration of Women\u2019s Experiences of Pregnancy and Vaginal Birth after Cesarean in the United States","volume":"48","author":"Knobf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogn.2022.10.001","article-title":"Racial Disparities in Respectful Maternity Care during Pregnancy and Birth after Cesarean in Rural United States","volume":"52","author":"Kozhimannil","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1111\/jmwh.13269","article-title":"Experiences of Quality Perinatal Care during the US COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"66","author":"Kennedy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Midwifery Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basile Ibrahim, B., Vedam, S., Illuzzi, J., Cheyney, M., and Kennedy, H.P. (2022). Inequities in Quality Perinatal Care in the United States during Pregnancy and Birth after Cesarean. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274790"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1111\/birt.12641","article-title":"Coercion and Non-Consent during Birth and Newborn Care in the United States","volume":"49","author":"Logan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Respectful Maternity Care in the United States\u2014Characterizing Inequities Experienced by Birthing People","volume":"2024","author":"Patel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7235e1","article-title":"Vital Signs: Maternity Care Experiences\u2014United States, April 2023","volume":"72","author":"Mohamoud","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1411","article-title":"Person-Centered Maternity Care and Health Outcomes at 1 and 6 Months Postpartum","volume":"31","author":"Attanasio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"207","article-title":"The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations","volume":"2","author":"Geronimus","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.060749","article-title":"\u201cWeathering\u201d and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States","volume":"96","author":"Geronimus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146515582100","article-title":"Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-Based Sample","volume":"56","author":"Geronimus","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0513-6","article-title":"The Color of Health: How Racism, Segregation, and Inequality Affect the Health and Well-Being of Preterm Infants and Their Families","volume":"87","author":"Beck","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Prather, C., Fuller, T.R., Jeffries, W.L., Marshall, K.J., Howell, A.V., Belyue-Umole, A., and King, W. (2018). Health Equity, Mary Ann Liebert Inc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1097\/GRF.0000000000000349","article-title":"Reducing Disparities in Severe Maternal Morbidity and Mortality","volume":"61","author":"Howell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"470","article-title":"Testing the Weathering Hypothesis among Mexican-Origin Women","volume":"12","author":"Wildsmith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1177\/1043659608325844","article-title":"Understanding Native Women\u2019s Health: Historical Legacies","volume":"20","author":"Palacios","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Transcult. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-018-2500-7","article-title":"Racial\/Ethnic Inequities in Low Birth Weight and Preterm Birth: The Role of Multiple Forms of Stress","volume":"22","author":"Almeida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2018.10.004","article-title":"Birth Weight and Maternal Age among American Indian\/Alaska Native Mothers: A Test of the Weathering Hypothesis","volume":"7","author":"Dennis","year":"2019","journal-title":"SSM Popul. Health"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Evans, L., Engelman, M., Mikulas, A., and Malecki, K. (2021). Social Science and Medicine, Elsevier Ltd."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Riggan, K.A., Gilbert, A., and Allyse, M.A. (2020). Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, Springer."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2019.02.011","article-title":"The Weathering Hypothesis as an Explanation for Racial Disparities in Health: A Systematic Review","volume":"33","author":"Forde","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-052020-105613","article-title":"Understanding Health Inequalities Through the Lens of Social Epigenetics","volume":"43","author":"Martin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glq180","article-title":"Is Telomere Length a Biomarker of Aging? A Review","volume":"66","author":"Mather","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-022-00586-4","article-title":"Telomere Length and Epigenetic Clocks as Markers of Cellular Aging: A Comparative Study","volume":"44","author":"Pearce","year":"2022","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McEwen, C.A. (2022). Connecting the Biology of Stress, Allostatic Load and Epigenetics to Social Structures and Processes. Neurobiol. Stress, 17.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2022.100426"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08103.x","article-title":"Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress. Elaborating and Testing the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic Load","volume":"Volume 896","author":"McEwen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2009.10.002","article-title":"Allostatic Load Biomarkers of Chronic Stress and Impact on Health and Cognition","volume":"35","author":"Juster","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/XEB.0000000000000277","article-title":"Updated Methodological Guidance for the Conduct of Scoping Reviews","volume":"19","author":"Peters","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBI Evid. Implement."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2024, February 02). GDP per Capita (Current US$)\u2014OECD Members|Data. Available online: https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=OE&most_recent_value_desc=true."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.15270","article-title":"Obstetric Violence: A Latin American Legal Response to Mistreatment during Childbirth","volume":"125","author":"Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rhm.2016.04.002","article-title":"Moving beyond Disrespect and Abuse: Addressing the Structural Dimensions of Obstetric Violence","volume":"24","author":"Sadler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reprod. Health Matters"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/nuf.12482","article-title":"A Concept Analysis of Obstetric Violence in the United States of America","volume":"55","author":"Garcia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nurs. Forum."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-020-00977-9","article-title":"Estimating Social Gradients in Health for UK Mothers and Infants of Pakistani Origin: Do Latent Class Measures of Socioeconomic Position Help?","volume":"22","author":"Mallicoat","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minor Health"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291709992224","article-title":"A Prospective Longitudinal Study of the Prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Resulting from Childbirth Events","volume":"40","author":"Alcorn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1111\/jmwh.12617","article-title":"Risk For Postpartum Depression among Immigrant Arabic Women in the United States: A Feasibility Study","volume":"62","author":"Alhasanat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Midwifery Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-020-05857-z","article-title":"Predicting Postpartum Post-Traumatic Stress and Depressive Symptoms in Low-Risk Women from Distal and Proximal Factors: A Biopsychosocial Prospective Study Using Structural Equation Modeling","volume":"303","author":"Catala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.09.136","article-title":"Prevalence of Maternal Antenatal and Postnatal Depression and Their Association with Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Factors: A Multicentre Study in Italy","volume":"279","author":"Cena","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2015.08.054","article-title":"Sociodemographic, Pregnancy, Obstetric, and Postnatal Predictors of Postpartum Stress, Anxiety and Depression in New Mothers","volume":"188","author":"Clout","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-016-0649-x","article-title":"Multiple Domains of Stress Predict Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in Low-Income Mexican American Women: The Moderating Effect of Social Support","volume":"19","author":"Coburn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796017000026","article-title":"Prevalence and Factors Associated with Depression and Depression-Related Healthcare Access in Mothers of 9-Month-Old Infants in the Republic of Ireland","volume":"27","author":"Cruise","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2015.08.010","article-title":"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder after Childbirth and the Influence of Maternity Team Care during Labour and Birth: A Cohort Study","volume":"32","author":"Vercauteren","year":"2016","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desmarais, S.L., Pritchard, A., Lowder, E.M., and Janssen, P.A. (2014). Intimate Partner Abuse before and during Pregnancy as Risk Factors for Postpartum Mental Health Problems. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2393-14-132"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2007.02.013","article-title":"Ethnicity, Psychosocial Risk, and Perinatal Depression-a Comparative Study among Inner-City Women in the United Kingdom","volume":"63","author":"Edge","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/00048670701739629","article-title":"Does Antenatal Screening for Psychosocial Risk Factors Predict Postnatal Depression? A Follow-up Study of 154 Women in Adelaide, South Australia","volume":"42","author":"Edwards","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ertan, D., Hingray, C., Burlacu, E., Sterl\u00e9, A., and El-Hage, W. (2021). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Following Childbirth. BMC Psychiatry, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-021-03158-6"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2013.4438","article-title":"Postpartum Anxiety and Comorbid Depression in a Population-Based Sample of Women","volume":"23","author":"Farr","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1080\/08870446.2010.533770","article-title":"Support during Birth Interacts with Prior Trauma and Birth Intervention to Predict Postnatal Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms","volume":"26","author":"Ford","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Health"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-012-0301-3","article-title":"The Impact of Subjective Birth Experiences on Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"16","author":"Vollrath","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-022-01243-7","article-title":"Two Are Better than One? The Impact of Lay Birth Companions on Childbirth Experiences and PTSD","volume":"25","author":"Handelzalts","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1080\/0167482X.2022.2081146","article-title":"Epidural Analgesia Associations with Depression, PTSD, and Bonding at 2 Months Postpartum","volume":"43","author":"Handelzalts","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.11.102","article-title":"Prevalence and Factors Associated with Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress in a Population-Based Maternity Survey in England","volume":"279","author":"Harrison","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-013-3046-y","article-title":"Socioeconomic Status and Depression during and after Pregnancy in the Franconian Maternal Health Evaluation Studies (FRAMES)","volume":"289","author":"Hein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2019.03.008","article-title":"Perinatal Factors Related to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms 1\u20135 Years Following Birth","volume":"33","year":"2020","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2017.12.015","article-title":"Birth Experiences, Trauma Responses and Self-Concept in Postpartum Psychotic-like Experiences","volume":"197","author":"Holt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2012.09.022","article-title":"Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression among Abused and Nonabused Women","volume":"207","author":"Janssen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1007\/s10597-017-0175-y","article-title":"Neighborhood Effects on PND Symptom Severity for Women Enrolled in a Home Visiting Program","volume":"54","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Community Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2014.4824","article-title":"Predictors of Postpartum Depression","volume":"23","author":"Katon","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-011-0817-6","article-title":"Screening for Postpartum Depression among Low-Income Mothers Using an Interactive Voice Response System","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2021.110424","article-title":"A Prospective Cohort Study of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Maternal-Infant Bonding after First Childbirth HHS Public Access","volume":"144","author":"Kjerulff","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-016-1925-0","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence Associated with Postpartum Depression, Regardless of Socioeconomic Status","volume":"20","author":"Kothari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.05.058","article-title":"Differential Predictors of Birth-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Mothers and Fathers-A Longitudinal Cohort Study","volume":"292","author":"Kress","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-011-0816-7","article-title":"Depression and Pregnancy Stressors Affect the Association between Abuse and Postpartum Depression","volume":"16","author":"LaCoursiere","year":"2012","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-023-05551-3","article-title":"Disrespect during Childbirth and Postpartum Mental Health: A French Cohort Study","volume":"23","author":"Leavy","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1007\/s10597-017-0171-2","article-title":"Prenatal Life Events, Maternal Employment, and Postpartum Depression across a Diverse Population in New York City","volume":"54","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Community Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luecken, L.J., Crnic, K.A., Gonzales, N.A., Winstone, L.K., and Somers, J.A. (2019). Mother-Infant Dyadic Dysregulation and Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in Low-Income Mexican-Origin Women. Biol. Psychol., 147.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2018.10.016"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1037\/cdp0000278","article-title":"Sociocultural Stressors Across the Perinatal Period and Risk for Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in Women of Mexican Descent","volume":"26","author":"Sanchez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cultur. Divers. Ethn. Minor Psychol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2022.103297","article-title":"Relationship between Perceived Obstetric Violence and the Risk of Postpartum Depression: An Observational Study","volume":"108","year":"2022","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2016.5872","article-title":"Antenatal Stressful Life Events and Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in the United States: The Role of Women\u2019s Socioeconomic Status Indices at the State Level","volume":"26","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1080\/13557858.2017.1280137","article-title":"Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Relationship between Antenatal Stressful Life Events and Postpartum Depression among Women in the United States: Does Provider Communication on Perinatal Depression Minimize the Risk?","volume":"23","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ethn. Health"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.04.024","article-title":"The Role of Prenatal Social Support in Social Inequalities with Regard to Maternal Postpartum Depression According to Migrant Status","volume":"272","author":"Nakamura","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.3112","article-title":"The Relationship between Birth Satisfaction, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Postnatal Depression Symptoms in Croatian Women","volume":"38","author":"Brekalo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-012-1089-5","article-title":"Postpartum Depression in Adolescent and Adult Mothers: Comparing Prenatal Risk Factors and Predictive Models","volume":"17","author":"Nunes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2014.03.011","article-title":"Predicting Posttraumatic Stress Disorder after Childbirth","volume":"30","author":"Alcorn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogbo, F.A., Kingsley Ezeh, O., Dhami, M.V., Naz, S., Khanlari, S., Mckenzie, A., Agho, K., Page, A., Ussher, J., and Perz, J. (2019). Perinatal Distress and Depression in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Australian Women: The Role of Psychosocial and Obstetric Factors. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16162945"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paiz, J.C., de Jezus Castro, S.M., Giugliani, E.R.J., dos Santos Ahne, S.M., Aqua, C.B.D., and Giugliani, C. (2022). Association between Mistreatment of Women during Childbirth and Symptoms Suggestive of Postpartum Depression. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-022-04978-4"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3109\/0167482X.2012.759555","article-title":"Association of a Serotonin Transporter Gene Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and Stressful Life Events with Postpartum Depressive Symptoms: A Population-Based Study","volume":"34","author":"Jansen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-0361.2009.00212.x","article-title":"A Rural Perspective on Perinatal Depression: Prevalence, Correlates, and Implications for Help-Seeking among Low-Income Women","volume":"25","author":"Price","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Rural. Health"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-016-2028-7","article-title":"The Effect of Stressful Life Events on Postpartum Depression: Findings from the 2009\u20132011 Mississippi Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System","volume":"20","author":"Qobadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Matern. Child Health J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1080\/03630242.2016.1157125","article-title":"Relationship between Perceived Perinatal Stress and Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Parental Self-Efficacy in Primiparous Mothers and the Role of Social Support","volume":"57","author":"Razurel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Women Health"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, L., Henry, A., Harvey, S.B., Homer, C.S.E., and Davis, G.K. (2022). Depression, Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Six Months Following Preeclampsia and Normotensive Pregnancy: A P4 Study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-022-04439-y"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-016-0689-2","article-title":"Prevalence of Stressful Life Events during Pregnancy and Its Association with Postpartum Depressive Symptoms","volume":"20","author":"Kanu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.06.016","article-title":"The Association between Disrespect and Abuse of Women during Childbirth and Postpartum Depression: Findings from the 2015 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study","volume":"256","author":"Silveira","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sommerlad, S., Schermelleh-Engel, K., La Rosa, V.L., Louwen, F., and Oddo-Sommerfeld, S. (2021). Trait Anxiety and Unplanned Delivery Mode Enhance the Risk for Childbirth-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Women with and without Risk of Preterm Birth: A Multi Sample Path Analysis. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256681"},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"69","article-title":"Institutional Violence and Quality of Service in Obstetrics Are Associated with Postpartum Depression","volume":"51","author":"Rattner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-022-06460-0","article-title":"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Following Childbirth: Prevalence and Associated Factors\u2014A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"306","author":"Steetskamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2014.4857","article-title":"Stressful Events during Pregnancy and Postpartum Depressive Symptoms","volume":"24","author":"Stone","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suarez, A., and Yakupova, V. (2023). Past Traumatic Life Events, Postpartum PTSD, and the Role of Labor Support. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20116048"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.16688","article-title":"Early- and Late-Onset Postpartum Depression Exhibit Distinct Associated Factors: The IGEDEPP Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"128","author":"Tebeka","year":"2021","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-022-01263-3","article-title":"Clinician-Reported Childbirth Outcomes, Patient-Reported Childbirth Trauma, and Risk for Postpartum Depression","volume":"25","author":"Waller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.24390","article-title":"Characteristics of Women with Different Perinatal Depression Trajectories","volume":"98","author":"Wikman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2022.103385","article-title":"Postpartum PTSD and Birth Experience in Russian-Speaking Women","volume":"112","author":"Yakupova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1002\/nur.21943","article-title":"Predictors of Psychological Distress in Low-Income Mothers over the First Postpartum Year","volume":"42","author":"Adynski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Nurs. Health"},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"237","article-title":"Inflammatory Markers of Perinatal Depression in Women with and without History of Trauma","volume":"56","author":"Bianciardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Riv. Psichiatr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2017.02.029","article-title":"Inflammatory Markers in Late Pregnancy in Association with Postpartum Depression-A Nested Case-Control Study","volume":"79","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-018-0834-1","article-title":"Expression of Inflammatory Markers in Women with Perinatal Depressive Symptoms","volume":"21","author":"Deligiannidis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Women\u2019s Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caparros-Gonzalez, R.A., Romero-Gonzalez, B., Strivens-Vilchez, H., Gonzalez-Perez, R., Martinez-Augustin, O., and Peralta-Ramirez, M.I. (2017). Hair Cortisol Levels, Psychological Stress and Psychopathological Symptoms as Predictors of Postpartum Depression. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182817"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2015.04.012","article-title":"Bidirectional Psychoneuroimmune Interactions in the Early Postpartum Period Influence Risk of Postpartum Depression","volume":"49","author":"Corwin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2022.01.063","article-title":"Acculturative Stress, Telomere Length, and Postpartum Depression in Latinx Mothers","volume":"147","author":"Polcari","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231722","DOI":"10.1080\/15592294.2023.2231722","article-title":"Cumulative Stress, PTSD, and Emotion Dysregulation during Pregnancy and Epigenetic Age Acceleration in Hispanic Mothers and Their Newborn Infants","volume":"18","author":"Katrinli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15440","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-94281-7","article-title":"Maternal Biological Age Assessed in Early Pregnancy Is Associated with Gestational Age at Birth","volume":"11","author":"Lancaster","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakamura, Y., Nakatochi, M., Kunimoto, S., Okada, T., Aleksic, B., Toyama, M., Shiino, T., Morikawa, M., Yamauchi, A., and Yoshimi, A. (2019). Methylation Analysis for Postpartum Depression: A Case Control Study. BMC Psychiatry, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-019-2172-x"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.13566","article-title":"Association between Low Levels of Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines during Pregnancy and Postpartum Depression","volume":"77","author":"Ono","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-9741-5","article-title":"Lower Serum Zinc and Higher CRP Strongly Predict Prenatal Depression and Physio-Somatic Symptoms, Which All Together Predict Postnatal Depressive Symptoms","volume":"54","author":"Roomruangwong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2015-1899","article-title":"Relationship between Inflammatory Biomarkers and Depressive Symptoms during Late Pregnancy and the Early Postpartum Period: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"38","author":"Simpson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2020.105122","article-title":"Endocrine Stress Response in Pregnancy and 12 Weeks Postpartum\u2014Exploring Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression","volume":"125","author":"Stickel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.150.6.782","article-title":"Detection of Postnatal Depression. Development of the 10-Item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale","volume":"150","author":"Cox","year":"1987","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00409","article-title":"Development of a Measure of Postpartum PTSD: The City Birth Trauma Scale","volume":"9","author":"Ayers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-197905000-00004","article-title":"Impact of Event Scale: A Measure of Subjective Stress","volume":"41","author":"Horowitz","year":"1979","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"Wilson, J.P., and Keane, K. (1997). Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD, The Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Maruish, M.E. (1994). The Use of Psychological Testing for Treatment Planning and Outcome Assessment, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"Bohren, M.A., Tun\u00e7alp, \u00d6., and Miller, S. (2020). Best Practice and Research: Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Bailliere Tindall Ltd."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.13451","article-title":"Quality of Care for Pregnant Women and Newborns\u2014The WHO Vision","volume":"122","author":"Were","year":"2015","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.02.005","article-title":"The Global Epidemic of Abuse and Disrespect during Childbirth: History, Evidence, Interventions, and FIGO\u2019s Mother-Baby Friendly Birthing Facilities Initiative","volume":"131","author":"Miller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018). WHO Recommendations: Intrapartum Care for a Positive Childbirth Experience, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmqr.2023.100339","article-title":"\u201cI Was Able to Take It Back\u201d: Seeking VBAC after Experiencing Dehumanizing Maternity Care in a Primary Cesarean","volume":"4","author":"Cheyney","year":"2023","journal-title":"SSM Qual. Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1111\/jmwh.13102","article-title":"Listening to Women: Recommendations from Women of Color to Improve Experiences in Pregnancy and Birth Care","volume":"65","author":"Altman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Midwifery Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2018.02.013","article-title":"Health Care Experiences of Pregnant, Birthing and Postnatal Women of Color at Risk for Preterm Birth","volume":"201","author":"McLemore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2019.112491","article-title":"Information and Power: Women of Color\u2019s Experiences Interacting with Health Care Providers in Pregnancy and Birth","volume":"238","author":"Altman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.3390\/nursrep13040130","article-title":"Factors Associated with Obstetric Violence Implicated in the Development of Postpartum Depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review","volume":"13","author":"Arribas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nurs. Rep."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1080\/13648470.2021.1938510","article-title":"Obstetric Iatrogenesis in the United States: The Spectrum of Unintentional Harm, Disrespect, Violence, and Abuse","volume":"28","author":"Liese","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anthropol. Med."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Illich, I. (1975). Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health, Calder & Boyars."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000773","article-title":"Health Care Engagement and Follow-up after Perceived Discrimination in Maternity Care","volume":"55","author":"Attanasio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Attanasio, L.B., Ranchoff, B.L., and Geissler, K.H. (2021). Perceived Discrimination during the Childbirth Hospitalization and Postpartum Visit Attendance and Content: Evidence from the Listening to Mothers in California Survey. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253055"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0b013e31827310a1","article-title":"Prior Experiences of Racial Discrimination and Racial Differences in Health Care System Distrust","volume":"51","author":"Armstrong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2020.12.004","article-title":"The Determinant Role of IL-6 in the Establishment of Inflammation Leading to Spontaneous Preterm Birth","volume":"59","author":"Prairie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2022.01.008","article-title":"Lifetime Stressor Exposure, Systemic Inflammation during Pregnancy, and Preterm Birth among Black American Women","volume":"101","author":"Gillespie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1053\/j.nainr.2013.09.004","article-title":"Stress, Inflammation and Preterm Birth in African American Women","volume":"13","author":"Giurgescu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Newborn Infant Nurs. Rev."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1097\/JPN.0000000000000471","article-title":"Stress during Pregnancy and Epigenetic Modifications to Offspring DNA: A Systematic Review of Associations and Implications for Preterm Birth","volume":"34","author":"Nowak","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Perinat. Neonatal. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2013.4572","article-title":"Allostatic Load in Women with a History of Low Birth Weight Infants: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"23","author":"Hux","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2022.04.024","article-title":"Telomeres, Oxidative Stress, and Timing for Spontaneous Term and Preterm Labor","volume":"227","author":"Phillippe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174417000733","article-title":"Epigenetics and DOHaD: From Basics to Birth and Beyond","volume":"8","author":"Craig","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"8","article-title":"Operationalising the Quality Maternal and Newborn Care Framework to Improve Maternity Care Quality and Health Outcomes for Marginalised Women and Childbearing People","volume":"10","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Birth Parent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2022.05.004","article-title":"Learning from Women: Improving Experiences of Respectful Maternity Care during Unplanned Caesarean Birth for Women with Diverse Ethnicity and Racial Backgrounds","volume":"36","author":"Chinkam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1111\/birt.12616","article-title":"Birth during the COVID-19 Pandemic: What Childbearing People in the United States Needed to Achieve a Positive Birth Experience","volume":"49","author":"Combellick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2020.10.027","article-title":"Structural Racism, Socio-Economic Marginalization, and Infant Mortality","volume":"190","author":"Murray","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30569-X","article-title":"Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence and Interventions","volume":"389","author":"Bailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2017.03.012","article-title":"Separate and Unequal: Structural Racism and Infant Mortality in the US","volume":"45","author":"Wallace","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.18865\/ed.31.S1.293","article-title":"Structural Racism: The Rules and Relations of Inequity","volume":"31","author":"Gee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ethn. Dis."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2021.01394","article-title":"Systemic and Structural Racism: Definitions, Examples, Health Damages, and Approaches to Dismantling","volume":"41","author":"Braveman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Aff."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/4\/480\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:28:17Z","timestamp":1760106497000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/4\/480"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]]},"references-count":165,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph21040480"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph21040480","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]]}}}