{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T05:31:35Z","timestamp":1792042295557,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parental labour migration, of either one or both parents, has been associated with various challenges among left-behind children (LBC). However, there is a limited understanding of the LBC\u2019s own views and experiences of social and mental well-being and how the new daily life circumstances they encounter following their parents\u2019 migration impact them. This study aimed to understand the influence of parental migration and its aftermath on the social and mental well-being of adolescents (referred to as LBC) in two rural districts in Indonesia. Employing a qualitative design, data were collected through individual in-depth interviews with LBC (n = 24) aged 14 to 18 years, recruited using the snowball sampling technique. Data were thematically analysed, guided by a qualitative data analysis framework. The findings showed that parental migration negatively impacted the social well-being of LBC. This impact was reflected in negative labelling from friends and changes in familial roles which influenced their social interactions and activities with peers. Parental migration was also associated with challenges to the mental well-being of LBC. These manifested in the LBC experiencing fractured emotional bonds, leading to negative emotions, including stress, anxiety, sadness, depression, frustration, loss of motivation, and self-imposed isolation, which were associated with their parents\u2019 migration and abrupt disruptions in parent\u2013child communication. The transition to new life situations with caregivers after parental migration and the dynamics within the caregivers\u2019 households were additional factors that detrimentally affected their mental well-being. Unmet basic needs and educational needs due to financial hardships faced by mothers and caregivers further exacerbated mental health challenges for the children. The findings indicate the importance and improvement of policies and interventions in Indonesia (e.g., counselling services, non-cash food assistance, family hope program, direct cash assistance) that cover and address the diverse needs of mothers or caregivers and the LBC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21060793","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T07:33:20Z","timestamp":1718696000000},"page":"793","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Parental Migration and the Social and Mental Well-Being Challenges among Indonesian Left-Behind Children: A Qualitative Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1325-2640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nelsensius Klau","family":"Fauk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Health, Equity and Human Flourishing, Torrens University Australia, 88 Wakefield St, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfonsa Liquory","family":"Seran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Atapupu Public Health Centre, Health Department of Belu District, Atambua Belu 85752, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Aylward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Health, Equity and Human Flourishing, Torrens University Australia, 88 Wakefield St, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5792-7785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lillian","family":"Mwanri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Health, Equity and Human Flourishing, Torrens University Australia, 88 Wakefield St, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5559-9714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul Russell","family":"Ward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Public Health, Equity and Human Flourishing, Torrens University Australia, 88 Wakefield St, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Refugee Council of Australia (2019). An Analysis of UNHCR\u2019s 2018 Global Refugee Statistics: How Generous Is Australia\u2019s Refugee Program Compared to Other Countries, Refugee Council of Australia. Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/australia\/analysis-unhcr-s-2018-global-refugee-statistics-how-generous-australia-s-refugee."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"UNHCR (2018). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2018, The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/world\/unhcr-global-trends-forced-displacement-2018-0#:~:text=Over%20the%20past%20decade%2C%20the,mainly%20by%20the%20Syrian%20conflict."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"ILO (2021). ILO Global Estimates on International Migrant Workers: Results and Methodology, Internationa Labor Migration. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/wcmsp5\/groups\/public\/@dgreports\/@dcomm\/@publ\/documents\/publication\/wcms_808935.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"IOM (2020). World Migration Report, International Organization for Migratio. Available online: https:\/\/publications.iom.int\/system\/files\/pdf\/wmr_2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"ILO (2015). Mainstreaming of Migration in Development Policy and Integrating Migration in the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda, International Labor Organisation. Available online: https:\/\/www.ilo.org\/global\/topics\/labour-migration\/publications\/WCMS_220084\/lang--en\/index.htm."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023085818629","article-title":"Transfers from older parents to their adult children in Taiwan and the Philippines","volume":"17","author":"Agree","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E731","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.109-3674","article-title":"China\u2019s \u201cleft behind\u201d children often suffer health consequences","volume":"182","author":"Ma","year":"2010","journal-title":"CMAJ Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1080\/03066150.2011.559012","article-title":"Differentiated childhoods: Impacts of rural labor migration on left-behind children in China","volume":"38","author":"Ye","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Peasant Stud."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Zhu, Z., Kong, C., and Zhao, C. (2021). Caregiver burden and parenting stress among left-behind elderly individuals in rural China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10892-9"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"UNICEF (2020). UNICEF WORKING PAPER: Children \u201cLeft Behind\u201d, The United Nations International Children\u2019s Emergency Fund. Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/media\/83581\/file\/Children-Left-Behind.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2017.1333108","article-title":"Effect of Parental Migration on the Academic Performance of Left Behind Children in North Western China","volume":"54","author":"Bai","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dev. Stud."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Sullivan, K. (2020). Effects of Parental Migration on Education and Personality: Evidence from Indonesia. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Arkansas]. Available online: https:\/\/scholarworks.uark.edu\/etd\/3614."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R., and Zhou, L. (2021). Parental Migration and Psychological Well-Being of Children in Rural China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18158085"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-018-0795-z","article-title":"Impact of parental migration on psychosocial well-being of children left behind: A qualitative study in rural China","volume":"17","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2567","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32558-3","article-title":"Health impacts of parental migration on left-behind children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"392","author":"Fellmeth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2011.00844.x","article-title":"Migrant Parents and the Psychological Well-Being of Left-Behind Children in Southeast Asia","volume":"73","author":"Graham","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1007\/s11482-021-09989-5","article-title":"The Effects of Parental Labor Migration on Children\u2019s Mental Health in Rural China","volume":"17","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Res. Qual. Life"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"188","article-title":"The Psychological WellBeing among Left-Behind Children of Labor Migrant Parents in Rural Northern Vietnam","volume":"5","author":"Luot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open J. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-019-0298-8","article-title":"Mental health and risk behaviors of children in rural China with different patterns of parental migration: A cross-sectional study","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838017744768","article-title":"Parental Migration, Children\u2019s Safety and Psychological Adjustment in Rural China: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abus."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1111\/cfs.12899","article-title":"Effects of parental migration on Chinese children\u2019s mental health: Mediating roles of social support from different sources","volume":"27","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Fam. Soc. Work"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kharel, M., Akira, S., Kiriya, J., Ong, K.I.C., and Jimba, M. (2021). Parental migration and psychological well-being of left-behind adolescents in Western Nepal. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245873"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2014.10.058","article-title":"International parental migration and the psychological well-being of children in Ghana, Nigeria, and Angola","volume":"132","author":"Mazzucato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2004","DOI":"10.1002\/psp.2004","article-title":"Psychological Well-being of Ghanaian Children in Transnational Families","volume":"23","author":"Mazzucato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Popul. Space Place"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"222","article-title":"I Felt Like My Heart Was Staying Behind: Psychological Implications of Family Separations & Reunifications for Immigrant Youth","volume":"26","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007802","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-007802","article-title":"Parental migration patterns and risk of depression and anxiety disorder among rural children aged 10\u201318 years in China: A cross-sectional study","volume":"5","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmh.2023.100176","article-title":"Children\u2019s emotional and behavioral response following a migration: A scoping review","volume":"7","author":"Andrade","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Migr. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/cwe.12161","article-title":"Effects of Parental Migration on Mental Health of Left-behind Children: Evidence from Northwestern China","volume":"24","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"China World Econ."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"BPS Indonesia (2023). Statistik Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"BP2MI (2024, April 15). Data Penempatan and Pelindungan Pekerja Migran Indonesia, Available online: https:\/\/www.bp2mi.go.id\/uploads\/statistik\/images\/data_20-03-2023_Laporan_Publikasi_Tahun_2022_-_FIX_.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1080\/17441730.2019.1609294","article-title":"Parental migration and the educational enrolment of left-behind children: Evidence from rural Ponorogo, Indonesia","volume":"15","author":"Arlini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asian Popul. Stud."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Rivard, E.A. (2012). The Effects of Parental Migration on Child Educational Outcomes in Indonesia, Georgetown University. Available online: https:\/\/repository.library.georgetown.edu\/bitstream\/handle\/10822\/557824\/Rivard_georgetown_0076M_11686.pdf?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.4103\/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_370_18","article-title":"Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Left-Behind Children in Indonesia","volume":"41","author":"Umami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1080\/14733285.2017.1407405","article-title":"\u2018Like it, don\u2019t like it, you have to like it\u2019: Children\u2019s emotional responses to the absence of transnational migrant parents in Lombok, Indonesia","volume":"16","author":"Beazley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"BPS Kabupaten Belu (2021). Sosial dan Kependudukan."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"BPS Kabupaten Malaka (2020). Sosial dan Kependudukan."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Pemerintah Kabupaten Belu (2020). Kesehatan."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauk, N.K., Gesesew, H.A., Seran, A.L., Raymond, C., Tahir, R., and Ward, P.R. (2022). Barriers to Accessing HIV Care Services in Host Low and Middle Income Countries: Views and Experiences of Indonesian Male Ex-Migrant Workers Living with HIV. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114377"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1632","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(22)00371-0","article-title":"The state of health in Indonesia\u2019s provinces, 1990\u20132013; 2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"10","author":"Mboi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Saks, M., and Allsop, J. (2013). Competing paradigms and health research: Design and process. Researching Health, Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods, Sage."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1177\/1468794104044430","article-title":"Qualitative research and translation dilemmas","volume":"4","author":"Temple","year":"2004","journal-title":"Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1177\/160940691000900103","article-title":"Understanding the Processes of Translation and Transliteration in Qualitative Research","volume":"9","author":"Regmi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Methods"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Bryman, A., and Burgess, R.G. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis for Applied Policy Research, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Fauk, N.K. (2022). Risk Factors and the Impact of HIV among Women Living with HIV and Their Families in Yogyakarta and Belu District, Indonesia. [Ph.D. Thesis, Flinders University]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauk, N.K., Ward, P.R., Hawke, K., and Mwanri, L. (2021). Cultural and religious determinants of HIV transmission: A qualitative study with people living with HIV in Belu and Yogyakarta, Indonesia. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0257906"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Ray, S.A., Hou, W., and Liu, X. (2021). Environmental Risk Factors and Their Different Effects in Depressive Symptoms of Left-Behind Children in Rural China Compared with Non-Left-Behind Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182010873"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1027\/0227-5910\/a000903","article-title":"Discrimination Experiences of Orphans and Left-Behind Children in China as Predictors of Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors","volume":"44","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crisis"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2525","DOI":"10.1007\/s11482-021-09988-6","article-title":"The Impact of Perceived Discrimination on Mental Health Among Chinese Migrant and Left-Behind Children: A Meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Res. Qual. Life"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, M., Li, L., Zhu, W.X., and Hesketh, T. (2020). Community-Based Intervention to Improve the Well-Being of Children Left Behind by Migrant Parents in Rural China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17197218"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"100566","article-title":"The health status and related interventions for children left behind due to parental migration in the Philippines: A scoping review","volume":"28","author":"Dominguez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health West. Pac."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antia, K., Boucsein, J., Deckert, A., Dambach, P., Ra\u010dait\u0117, J., \u0160urkien\u0117, G., Jaenisch, T., Horstick, O., and Winkler, V. (2020). Effects of International Labour Migration on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Left-Behind Children: A Systematic Literature Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124335"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/cd.270","article-title":"Emotion socialization in adolescence: The roles of mothers and fathers","volume":"2010","author":"Brand","year":"2010","journal-title":"New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193449","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1193449","article-title":"Supportive parent-adolescent relationships as a foundation for adolescent emotion regulation and adjustment","volume":"14","author":"Ratliff","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1111\/glob.12135","article-title":"Navigating transnational childcare relationships: Migrant parents and their children\u2019s caregivers in the origin country","volume":"17","author":"Poeze","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Netw."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"103767","article-title":"Grandparenting left-behind children in Javanese Migrant-sending villages: Trigenerational care circuits and the negotiation of care","volume":"143","author":"Somaiah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geoforum J. Phys. Hum. Reg. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1728-4457.2014.00673.x","article-title":"Effects of Parents\u2019 Migration on the Education of Children Left Behind in Rural China","volume":"40","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Popul. Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2013.29.2","article-title":"Does migration benefit the schooling of children left behind?","volume":"29","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Demogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1111\/jomf.12139","article-title":"Parental Migration and Education of Left-Behind Children: A Comparison of Two Settings","volume":"76","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Kementerian Sosial Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (2024, March 15). Peraturan Menteri Sosial Republik Indonesia Nomor 1 Tahun 2019 Tentang Penyaluran Belanja Bantuan Sosial di Lingkungan Kementerian Sosial, Available online: https:\/\/peraturan.bpk.go.id\/Details\/129443\/permensos-no-1-tahun-2019."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Pemerintah Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (2024, March 15). Peraturan Presiden Nomor 63 Tahun 2017 Tentang Penyaluran Bantuan Sosial Secara Non Tunai, Available online: https:\/\/peraturan.bpk.go.id\/Details\/73010\/perpres-no-63-tahun-2017."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/6\/793\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:00:33Z","timestamp":1760108433000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/6\/793"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph21060793"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph21060793","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]}}}