{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:12:28Z","timestamp":1790208748982,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,2]],"date-time":"2024-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JPB Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The COVID-19 pandemic drove the use of cleaning products, causing organic solvent contamination in hospitality environments. This pilot study investigated the presence and concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in selected hotels in four different US cities with varying star ratings at the end of the pandemic period. Targeting 139 VOCs, 57 were detected across eight groups: alcohols, halocarbons, aromatics, alkanes, terpenes, carbonyls, ethers, and esters, in the indoor air. Alcohols were the most prevalent, especially in lower-rated hotels, suggesting higher use of cleaning supplies. Elevated levels of aromatics were detected in hotels rated under three stars, with a notable disparity compared to higher-rated hotels. Additionally, alkanes and terpenes such as n-tetradecane and d-limonene were consistently detected. Health risk assessment showed concentrations of all VOCs remained below their health criteria for customers. The cumulative cancer risk was 2.25 \u00d7 10\u22126 for hotel workers from chronic occupational exposure to eight carcinogenic VOCs, representing 1\/3 of the lifetime risk from these chemicals in the ambient air. Cancer risks from individual VOCs ranged from 0.001 \u00d7 10\u22126 to 1.07 \u00d7 10\u22126, with chloroform accounting for nearly half of the cumulative risk. The findings underscore the need for careful selection and use of furnishings and cleaning supplies and for effective indoor air pollution control and management in hotel indoor environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21111464","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]],"date-time":"2024-11-04T03:57:34Z","timestamp":1730692654000},"page":"1464","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Contamination in Hotel Rooms: A Pilot Study to Understand Sources and Health Risks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1031-9149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Nored","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8789-4737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianqiang","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kemmons Wilson School of Hospitality and Resort Management, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Namuun","family":"Batbaatar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6541-6478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunrong","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zanni, S., Motta, G., Mura, M., Longo, M., and Caiulo, D. (2021). The challenge of indoor air quality management: A case study in the hospitality industry at the time of the pandemic. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12070880"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"UNWTO (2024, September 30). UNWTO Tourism Recovery Tracker. Available online: https:\/\/www.unwto.org\/tourism-data\/unwto-tourism-recovery-tracker."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2018.05.002","article-title":"Sleepless nights in hotels? Understanding factors that influence hotel sleep quality","volume":"74","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"288","article-title":"Impact of indoor environmental quality on hotel guests\u2019 behaviors","volume":"24","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Tour. Adm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, Z., Yang, X., Liu, C., and Li, J. (2021). Assessment of indoor environmental quality in budget hotels using text-mining method: Case study of top five brands in China. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13084490"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"606","article-title":"What Safety and Security Measures Really Matter in the Post-COVID Recovery of the Hospitality Industry? An Analysis of the Visitor\u2019s Intention to Return in Spain","volume":"3","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tour. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-05-2019-0481","article-title":"Exploring particulate matter pollution in hotel guestrooms","volume":"32","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3223","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-01-2021-0102","article-title":"A wearable technology solution and research agenda for housekeeper safety and health","volume":"33","author":"Mejia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-02-2015-0076","article-title":"Environmental management research in hospitality","volume":"28","author":"Chan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2008.03.004","article-title":"Indoor air quality in new hotels\u2019 guest rooms of the major world factory region","volume":"28","author":"Chan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106555","article-title":"Listen to the guests: Text-mining Airbnb reviews to explore indoor environmental quality","volume":"169","author":"Villeneuve","year":"2020","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1323(97)00055-3","article-title":"A review of the emission of VOCs from polymeric materials used in buildings","volume":"33","author":"Yu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106589","article-title":"Ten questions concerning the implications of carpet on indoor chemistry and microbiology","volume":"170","author":"Haines","year":"2020","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2018.11.096","article-title":"Data on formaldehyde sources, formaldehyde concentrations and air exchange rates in European housings","volume":"22","author":"Salthammer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1886","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2018.1476126","article-title":"Emission of volatile organic compounds from new furniture products and its impact on human health","volume":"25","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X07082498","article-title":"Assessment of the Emission Characteristics of VOCs from Interior Furniture Materials during the Construction Process","volume":"16","author":"Pang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X11424330","article-title":"Long-term Impact of Formaldehyde and VOC Emissions from Wood-based Products on Indoor Environments; and Issues with Recycled Products","volume":"21","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1097\/SMJ.0b013e31813c6a37","article-title":"Immediate impact of smoke-free laws on indoor air quality","volume":"100","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"South Med. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, M., Goodman, N., and Vardoulakis, S. (2024). Impact of secondhand smoke on air quality in partially enclosed outdoor hospitality venues: A review. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-19394-w"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1515\/REVEH.2007.22.1.39","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds: Do they present a risk to our health?","volume":"22","author":"Rumchev","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borowski, M., Zwoli\u0144ska, K., and Czerwi\u0144ski, M. (2022). An experimental study of thermal comfort and indoor air quality\u2014A case study of a hotel building. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15062026"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Q., Song, Q., Yan, Y., Wang, Z., Guo, L., and Wang, X. (2016). Exposure to particle matters and hazardous volatile organic compounds in selected hot spring hotels in Guangdong, China. Atmosphere, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos7040054"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-021-01124-5","article-title":"Exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at gas stations: A probabilistic analysis","volume":"15","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, C., and Fu, X. (2017). Diffusive Uptake Rates of Volatile Organic Compounds on Standard ATD Tubes for Environmental and Workplace Applications. Environments, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments4040087"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"ATSDR (2024, September 30). Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for Hazardous Substances: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/mrls\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"USEPA (2024, September 30). Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition, Available online: https:\/\/assessments.epa.gov\/risk\/document\/&deid=236252#downloads."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"USEPA (2024, September 30). Integrated Risk Information System, Available online: http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/iris\/."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2021.118509","article-title":"Airborne 2,5-dimethylfuran as a marker to indicate exposure to indoor tobacco and biomass burning smoke","volume":"259","author":"Fu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-12-2021-1549","article-title":"Indoor air quality monitoring and management in hospitality: An overarching framework","volume":"35","author":"Zanni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2007.02.025","article-title":"Characterization of emissions composition for selected household products available in Korea","volume":"148","author":"Kwon","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2010.08.002","article-title":"Fragranced consumer products: Chemicals emitted, ingredients unlisted","volume":"31","author":"Steinemann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Impact Assess. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0160-4120(01)00046-0","article-title":"Determination of 2-butoxyethanol emissions from selected consumer products and its application in assessment of inhalation exposure associated with cleaning tasks","volume":"26","author":"Zhu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1002\/1348-9585.12017","article-title":"Comprehensive review of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol as an indoor air pollutant","volume":"61","author":"Wakayama","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Occup. Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/19338240903390248","article-title":"Dampness and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in floor construction of rehabilitation center: Health effects in staff","volume":"65","author":"Wieslander","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Occup. Health"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.1996.10467497","article-title":"Chloroform in Indoor Air and Wastewater: The Role of Residential Washing Machines","volume":"46","author":"Shepherd","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2012.694399","article-title":"Emissions of p-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene from consumer products","volume":"62","author":"Guerrero","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salthammer, T. (1999). Volatile Organic Ingredients of Household. Organic Indoor Air Pollutants: Occurence, Measurement, Evaluation, WILEY-VCH.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527613663"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.01.070","article-title":"Source profiles of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) measured in China: Part I","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2005.09.050","article-title":"Real time monitoring of hazardous airborne chemicals: A styrene investigation","volume":"132","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1093\/jee\/23.3.608","article-title":"Naphthalene fumigation at controlled concentrations","volume":"23","author":"Hartzell","year":"1930","journal-title":"J. Econ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(01)88659-3","article-title":"Gas chromatographic system for the identification of halogenated pesticides by retention indices using n-alkanes as standards","volume":"547","author":"Bontempelli","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.106.4.1533","article-title":"Floral scent production in Clarkia (Onagraceae)(I. Localization and developmental modulation of monoterpene emission and linalool synthase activity)","volume":"106","author":"Pichersky","year":"1994","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2014.06.007","article-title":"Source apportionment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in aircraft cabins","volume":"81","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"178","article-title":"Experimental research on ethyl acetate as novel oxygenated fuel in the spark-ignition (SI) engine","volume":"45","author":"Kapusuz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Sources Part A Recovery Util. Environ. Eff."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2007.09.053","article-title":"Fragrance material review on methyl salicylate","volume":"45","author":"Lapczynski","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3164","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.0c03885","article-title":"Combustion Characteristics and Emission Analysis of Tetrahydrofuran\u2013Biodiesel-Blended Fuel in a Diesel Engine","volume":"35","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elecom.2007.10.009","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of platinum monolayer oxygen-reduction electrocatalysts with Co\u2013Pd core\u2013shell nanoparticle supports","volume":"9","author":"Shao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Electrochem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2007.09.073","article-title":"Carbonyl emissions in diesel and biodiesel exhaust","volume":"42","author":"Correa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2024.102236","article-title":"Fragrance chemicals in nail salons: Personal inhalation exposures and potential sources","volume":"15","author":"Jia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/elsc.200900011","article-title":"Evaluation of a combined activated carbon prefilter and biotrickling filter system treating variable ethanol and ethyl acetate gaseous emissions","volume":"9","author":"Sempere","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2024, September 30). NATA AirToxScreen, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/AirToxScreen\/2019-airtoxscreen."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12709","article-title":"Occupational exposure and health risks of volatile organic compounds of hotel housekeepers: Field measurements of exposure and health risks","volume":"31","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X11409458","article-title":"Characterisation of Volatile Organic Compounds at Hotels in Southern China","volume":"20","author":"Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2024, September 30). Carbon Lighthouse. U.S. Consumer Sentiment on Indoor Air Quality and COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/www.carbonlighthouse.com."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Seo, K. (2024, September 30). Asset-Light Business Model: Strategies for Hotels During the Pandemic. Boston Hospitality Review. Available online: https:\/\/www.bu.edu."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"OTA Insight (2024, September 30). OTA Insight. Share of Hospitality Operators Who Changed Standard Operating Procedures for Cleaning Hotel Rooms as a Result of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic Worldwide as of June 2020. Statista. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/1265596\/covid-19-hotel-operators-who-changed-room-cleaning-sops."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Kulkarni, S. (2024, September 30). Hotel Cleaning Services Market Anticipates Upsurge in Hospitality Sector Requirements 2024\u20132032. WhatTech. Available online: https:\/\/www.whatech.com."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Mateer, N. (2024, September 30). Hotel Tech-In: Purifying Hotel Room Air for Wellness Travelers. Hotel Dive. Available online: https:\/\/www.hoteldive.com\/news\/pure-rooms-air-quality-wellness\/701143."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"OSHA (2024, September 30). Protecting Workers Who Use Cleaning Chemicals, Available online: https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/OSHA3512.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2024.103866","article-title":"Which ESG dimensions matter in the hotel industry? Evidence from the cost of debt","volume":"122","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Host Hotels & Resorts (2024, October 25). Environmental Policy. Available online: https:\/\/www.hosthotels.com\/-\/media\/hosthotels\/files\/esg-performance\/host_hotels_resorts_inc_environmental_policy.pdf."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, C., Cao, K., Valaulikar, R., Fu, X., and Sorin, A.B. (2019). Variability of Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOC) in the Indoor Air of Retail Stores. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16234622"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-5978(91)90020-T","article-title":"The theory of planned behavior","volume":"50","author":"Ajzen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"99","article-title":"Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage","volume":"17","author":"Barney","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Manag."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1464\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:27:09Z","timestamp":1760113629000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1464"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,2]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph21111464"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph21111464","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,2]]}}}