{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:34:48Z","timestamp":1760146488297,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]],"date-time":"2024-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>When \u201ceducation\u201d is cited as a solution for domestic violence, different aspects of knowledge acquisition are often omitted. This study uses 2019 Demographic and Health Surveys from four West African countries (The Gambia, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone) with a combined sample size of 12,480 women and generalized ordered logit regression to examine the effects of types of knowledge (years of schooling, literacy, and health knowledge) on domestic violence (physical abuse, emotional abuse, and control issues). The results suggest that literacy has the most reliable beneficial impact on domestic violence and was consistently associated with decreased odds of abuse. However, greater findings suggest that schooling, literacy, and health knowledge function as separate types of education and that their relationships are complex and context-specific. By neglecting to see these types of knowledge as separate entities that can operate together, it is possible that mitigation strategies for domestic violence are going undiscovered.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21111492","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,11]],"date-time":"2024-11-11T03:52:07Z","timestamp":1731297127000},"page":"1492","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Role of Formal Schooling, Literacy, and Health Knowledge in Addressing Domestic Violence Against Women in West Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4209-9733","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amelia","family":"Van Komen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, School of Family, Home and Social Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3288-3026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hayley","family":"Pierce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, School of Family, Home and Social Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2013). Violence Against Women: A Global Health Problem of Epidemic Proportions, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/20-06-2013-violence-against-women-a-global-health-problem-of-epidemic-proportions-."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-018-0253-9","article-title":"Women decision-making capacity and intimate partner violence among women in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"76","author":"Ahinkorah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2015.33.35","article-title":"Educational attainment and adult literacy: A descriptive account of 31 sub-saharan africa countries","volume":"33","year":"2015","journal-title":"Demogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S18","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30125-0","article-title":"Measurement of health literacy to advance global health research: A study based on Demographic and Health Surveys in 14 sub-Saharan countries","volume":"5","author":"McClintock","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Mulaudzi, F.M., and Lebese, R.T. (2022). The role of patriarchy and its influences on domestic violence against females and children in Africa: An indigenous perspective. Working with Indigenous Knowledge: Strategies for Health Professionals, AOSIS Books."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.132413.3","article-title":"A socio-legal imperative of domestic violence prohibition in Africa vis-a-vis Nigerian legal structure for sexually abused women","volume":"12","author":"Olujobi","year":"2023","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2017.02.027","article-title":"Resources and Intimate Partner Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"95","author":"Cools","year":"2017","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1186\/s12978-021-01077-z","article-title":"Intimate Partner Violence against Adolescents and Young Women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Who Is Most Vulnerable?","volume":"18","author":"Wado","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"NP6084","article-title":"The Role of Socioeconomic Factors on Women\u2019s Risk of Being Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence","volume":"37","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8268.12169","article-title":"The Threat of Domestic Violence and Women Empowerment: The Case of West Africa","volume":"28","author":"Diallo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.113738","article-title":"Effects of Individual and Proximate Educational Context on Intimate Partner Violence: A Population-Based Study of Women in India","volume":"98","author":"Ackerson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1177\/097152150801500304","article-title":"Domestic violence in India: Effects of education","volume":"15","author":"Simister","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian J. Gend. Stud."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nabaggala, M.S., Reddy, T., and Manda, S. (2021). Effects of rural\u2013urban residence and education on intimate partner violence among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-analysis of health survey data. BMC Women\u2019s Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-021-01286-5"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1111\/ijsw.12214","article-title":"The impact of education and occupation on domestic violence in Saudi Arabia","volume":"25","author":"Shiraz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Welf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1257\/app.20160278","article-title":"For better or for worse? Education and the prevalence of domestic violence in Turkey","volume":"10","author":"Erten","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(01)00273-8","article-title":"Who\u2019s at risk? Factors associated with intimate partner violence in the Philippines","volume":"55","author":"Hindin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2005.01.009","article-title":"Marital violence, human development and women\u2019s property status in India","volume":"33","author":"Panda","year":"2005","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rapp, D., Zoch, B., Khan, M.M.H., Pollmann, T., and Kr\u00e4mer, A. (2012). Association between gap in spousal education and domestic violence in India and Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-12-467"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2015.08.004","article-title":"Impact of the spread of mass education on married women\u2019s experience with domestic violence","volume":"54","author":"Ghimire","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"OECD (2024, October 01). Reading Literacy. Available online: www.oecd.org\/en\/topics\/sub-issues\/reading-literacy.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S399196","article-title":"Health Literacy Among Young People in Africa: Evidence Synthesis","volume":"16","author":"Amanu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1353\/sof.2011.0025","article-title":"Literacy Gaps by Educational Attainment: A Cross-National Analysis","volume":"89","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soc. Forces"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Pritchett, L. (2023, May 12). Towards a New Consensus for Addressing the Global Challenge of the Lack of Education. Center for Global Development Working Paper No. 43. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1112689."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ckz093-010","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckz093.010","article-title":"O45 Literacy in family health as a preventive strategy for domestic violence: Integrative literature review","volume":"29","author":"Bernardino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2020.100691","article-title":"More than individual factors; is there any contextual effect of unemployment, poverty and literacy on the domestic spousal violence against women? A multilevel analysis on Indian context","volume":"12","author":"Das","year":"2020","journal-title":"SSM Popul. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-017-9915-6","article-title":"Prevalence of Spousal Violence and Associated Risk Factors: Facts from Pakistan Demographics and Health Survey 2012\u20132013","volume":"32","author":"Hussain","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v3i0.2070","article-title":"Violence against women in relation to literacy and area of residence in Ethiopia","volume":"3","author":"Deyessa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob. Health Action"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"277","article-title":"The factors associated to justify the physical partner violence among married women in Turkey","volume":"34","author":"Inal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ethiop. J. Health Dev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2012.08.005","article-title":"Differential effects of health knowledge and health empowerment over patients\u2019 self-management and health outcomes: A cross-sectional evaluation","volume":"89","author":"Camerini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Patient Educ. Couns."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2018.03.002","article-title":"Health literacy and health: Rethinking the strategies for universal health coverage in Ghana","volume":"159","author":"Amoah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11533","DOI":"10.2196\/11533","article-title":"Primary prevention of intimate partner violence among recently married dyads residing in the slums of Pune, India: Development and rationale for a dyadic intervention","volume":"8","author":"Kalokhe","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s12978-019-0694-9","article-title":"The prevalence and predictors of domestic violence among pregnant women in Southeast Oromia, Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Yohannes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1093\/heapro\/daz078","article-title":"Constructing a measure of health literacy in Sub-Saharan African countries","volume":"35","author":"McClintock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1093\/cdj\/bsi050","article-title":"Non-formal education and community development in Senegal","volume":"41","author":"Kuenzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Community Dev. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2007.10.004","article-title":"Poverty alleviation and integrated service delivery: Literacy, early child development and health","volume":"28","author":"Nordtveit","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Dev."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"UNESCO (2023, May 12). Harnessing the Potential of ICTs for Literacy: Teaching and Learning Effective Literacy and Numeracy Programmes Using Radio, TV, Mobile Phones, Tablets, and Computers, Available online: https:\/\/eric.ed.gov\/?id=ED573633."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/13668803.2018.1540400","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and women\u2019s labour force participation in Sub Saharan Africa","volume":"23","year":"2020","journal-title":"Community Work. Fam."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"12","article-title":"Do Women\u2019s Education and Economic Empowerment Reduce Genderbased Violence in Nigeria?","volume":"25","author":"Obiagu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Women's Stud."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Education Policy and Data Center (2008). The Extent and Impact of Non-Formal Education in 28 Developing Countries, Education Policy and Data Center. EPDC No. 08-05."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7264171","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7264171","article-title":"Adult literacy and skill acquisition programmes as correlates of women Empowerment and Self-Reliance in the Gambia","volume":"2020","author":"Olagbaju","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Stromquist, N. (1995). The Theoretical and practical bases for empowerment. Women, Education, and Empowerment Towards Autonomy, UNESCO Institute of Education."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1492\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:29:31Z","timestamp":1760113771000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1492"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph21111492"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph21111492","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]}}}