{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T22:18:17Z","timestamp":1790720297892,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,20]],"date-time":"2024-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018848","name":"University of Venda Staff Capacity Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["USDP\/UNIVEN\/NL01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["USDP\/UNIVEN\/NL01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018848","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigated the prevalence of childhood asthma and respiratory symptoms with their associated air pollution sources among adolescents aged 13\u201314 years residing in a Malaria-endemic region. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 2855 adolescents from fourteen (14) selected schools in communities exposed to high levels of air pollution from indoor residual spraying (IRS) that is used for malaria vector control in the Vhembe region. Data were collected using a self-administered standardized International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire. Statistical software STATA version 17 was used to analyze the data. Binary logistic regression was used to determine the relationship between air pollution sources and childhood asthma\/symptoms. Results: The prevalences of asthma, \u2018wheeze ever\u2019 and \u2018wheeze in the past\u2019 were 18.91%, 37.69% and 24.69%, respectively. The results from the adjusted binary logistic regression model indicated that exposure to tobacco smoke (OR = 1.84; 95% CI: 1.08\u20133.16), smoking a water pipe (OR = 1.65; 95% CI: 1.16\u20132.36) and the use of paraffin as fuel for heating (OR = 1.70; 95% CI: 0.97\u20132.88) and cooking (OR = 0.48; 95% CI: 0.29\u20131.00) were significant risk factors for asthma. Trucks passing through the streets, having a cat at home and using open fires were significantly associated with \u2018wheeze in the past\u2019. Finally, using gas for cooking (OR = 0.72; 95% CI: 0.53\u20130.99), open fires for heating (OR = 0.53; 95% CI: 0.35\u20130.80) and smoking a water pipe (OR = 2.47; 95% CI: 1.78\u20133.44) were associated with \u2018wheeze ever\u2019. Conclusions: School children living in these communities had an increased risk of developing asthma and presenting with wheezing due to exposure to environmental air pollution sources.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21111536","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,20]],"date-time":"2024-11-20T07:02:58Z","timestamp":1732086178000},"page":"1536","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Prevalence of Childhood Asthma, Respiratory Symptoms and Associated Air Pollution Sources Among Adolescent Learners in Selected Schools in Vhembe District, South Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Funzani","family":"Rathogwa-Takalani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Advanced Nursing Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa"},{"name":"School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3128-7847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thabelo Rodney","family":"Mudau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0364-0068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sean","family":"Patrick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"},{"name":"University of Pretoria Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3467-1043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joyce","family":"Shirinde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5076-3143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuku","family":"Voyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(23)00261-4","article-title":"Characterising sources of PM2\u00b7 5 exposure for school children with asthma: A personal exposure study across six cities in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"8","author":"Lim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Child Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19615","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-13208-x","article-title":"Air pollution exposure\u2014The (in) visible risk factor for respiratory diseases","volume":"28","author":"Tudorache","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-015-0018-7","article-title":"Chronic respiratory disease among the elderly in South Africa: Any association with proximity to mine dumps?","volume":"14","author":"Nkosi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e240535","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.0535","article-title":"Early-Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Childhood Asthma Cumulative Incidence in the ECHO CREW Consortium","volume":"7","author":"Zanobetti","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Millar, D.A., Kapwata, T., Kunene, Z., Mogotsi, M., Wernecke, B., Garland, R.M., Mathee, A., Theron, L., Levine, D.T., and Ungar, M. (2022). Respiratory health among adolescents living in the highveld air pollution priority area in South Africa. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-14497-8"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"95","article-title":"Asthma in adults","volume":"104","author":"Nanda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Clin."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001498","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjresp-2022-001498","article-title":"Prevalence, severity and risk factors for asthma in school-going adolescents in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa","volume":"10","author":"Mphahlele","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Open Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2021.1944051","article-title":"A comparison of asthma prevalence in adolescents living in urban and semi-urban areas in northwestern Iran","volume":"27","author":"Sabeti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P25","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.2029P25","article-title":"What is asthma?","volume":"202","author":"Sockrider","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002094","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02094-2020","article-title":"Trends in worldwide asthma prevalence","volume":"56","author":"Asher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dharmage, S.C., Perret, J.L., and Custovic, A. (2019). Epidemiology of asthma in children and adults. Front. Pediatr., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2019.00246"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mudau, R., Voyi, K., and Shirinde, J. (2024). Prevalence of Wheezing and Its Association with Environmental Tobacco Smoke Exposure among Rural and Urban Preschool Children in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202403.0175.v1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6671870","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6671870","article-title":"The Prevalence of Asthma among Iranian Children and Adolescent: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2021","author":"Rahimian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrante, G., and La Grutta, S. (2018). The burden of pediatric asthma. Front. Pediatr., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2018.00186"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"353","article-title":"Challenges in treating pediatric asthma in developing countries","volume":"14","author":"Zar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m2791","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m2791","article-title":"Air pollution and family related determinants of asthma onset and persistent wheezing in children: Nationwide case-control study","volume":"370","author":"Holst","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olajide-Ibiejugba, A.O., Nkosi, V., Takalani-Rathogwa, F., Shirinde, J., Wichmann, J., Green, R.J., and Voyi, K. (2021). Allergy and Household Living Conditions among Adolescents Living near Gold Mine Tailing Dumps in the Gauteng and North West Provinces of South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010122"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alahmadi, T.S., Hegazi, M.A., Alsaedi, H., Hamadallah, H., Atwah, A.F., Alghamdi, A.A., Altherwi, H.M., Alghamdi, M.S., Albeshri, E.M., and Alzanbaqi, M.I. (2023). Prevalence and risk factors of asthma in children and adolescents in Rabigh, Western Saudi Arabia. Children, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/children10020247"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpam.2019.02.004","article-title":"The prevalence of childhood asthma in Saudi Arabia","volume":"6","author":"Alahmadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00576","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00576-2020","article-title":"Asthma in South African adolescents: A time trend and risk factor analysis over two decades","volume":"7","author":"Baard","year":"2021","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fazel, N., Kundi, M., Kazemzadeh, A., Esmaily, H., Akbarzadeh, R., and Ahmadi, R. (2020). Environmental tobacco smoke exposure during pregnancy affects complications and birth outcomes in women with and without asthma. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-020-03000-z"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.12334","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the association of maternal smoking and passive smoking during pregnancy with neural tube defects","volume":"140","author":"Meng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2354","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph6092354","article-title":"Environmental determinants of asthma among school children aged 13\u201314 in and around Polokwane, Limpopo Province, South Africa","volume":"6","author":"Maluleke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aller.2016.08.011","article-title":"Meta-analysis of prevalence of wheezing and recurrent wheezing in infants","volume":"46","author":"Niu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2","article-title":"The prevalence of pediatric asthma in the Islamic Republic of Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"1","author":"Ghaffari","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farzan, S.F., Razafy, M., Eckel, S.P., Olmedo, L., Bejarano, E., and Johnston, J.E. (2019). Assessment of respiratory health symptoms and asthma in children near a drying saline lake. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16203828"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-13-32","article-title":"Association between wheeze and selected air pollution sources in an air pollution priority area in South Africa: A cross-sectional study","volume":"13","author":"Shirinde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14049","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.14049","article-title":"From preschool wheezing to asthma: Environmental determinants","volume":"34","author":"Xing","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Booalayan, H., Abdualrasool, M., Al-Shanfari, S., Boujarwa, A., Al-Mukaimi, A., Alkandery, O., and Akhtar, S. (2020). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and prevalence of asthma among adolescents in a middle eastern country. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09245-9"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirenga, B.J., de Jong, C., Katagira, W., Kasozi, S., Mugenyi, L., Boezen, M., van der Molen, T., and Kamya, M.R. (2019). Prevalence and factors associated with asthma among adolescents and adults in Uganda: A general population based survey. BMC Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-6562-2"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2022.01.015","article-title":"Association between e-cigarettes and asthma in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"62","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.15586\/aei.v49i1.25","article-title":"Prevalence of asthma, its correlates, and validation of the Pre-School Asthma Risk Factors Scale (PS-ARFS) among preschool children in Lebanon","volume":"49","author":"Hallit","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akiki, Z., Saadeh, D., Farah, R., Hallit, S., Sacre, H., Hosseini, H., and Salameh, P. (2021). Asthma prevalence and associated factors among lebanese adults: The first national survey. BMC Pulm. Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-021-01529-z"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170159","DOI":"10.1515\/ijamh-2017-0159","article-title":"Prevalence, associated factors, and control level of asthma symptoms among adolescents in Northern Jordan","volume":"32","author":"Alomari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adolesc. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2016-209596","article-title":"Prevalence of asthma-like symptoms with ageing","volume":"73","author":"Jarvis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.3109\/02770903.2015.1010733","article-title":"Prevalence, risk factors and underdiagnosis of asthma and wheezing in adults 40 years and older: A population-based study","volume":"52","author":"Caballero","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.waojou.2020.100123","article-title":"Comparison of individual-level and population-level risk factors for rhinoconjunctivitis, asthma, and eczema in the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Phase Three","volume":"13","author":"Rutter","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"122","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and childhood asthma: A review of South African epidemiological studies: Allergies in the workplace","volume":"28","author":"Olaniyan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220213","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.220213","article-title":"Impact of motor vehicle exhaust on the air quality of an urban city","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"279","article-title":"Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: Car sick","volume":"116","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1536\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:35:58Z","timestamp":1760114158000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/21\/11\/1536"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,20]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph21111536"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph21111536","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,20]]}}}