{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T18:00:00Z","timestamp":1781200800087,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740355200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"South African National Research Foundation (NRF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TTK170511230614"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TTK170511230614"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"South African Department of Higher Education and Training New Generation of Academics Programme (nGAP) fellowship fund","award":["TTK170511230614"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TTK170511230614"]}]},{"name":"WITS Chancellor\u2019s Female Academic Leaders Fellowship","award":["TTK170511230614"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TTK170511230614"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in nail salons poses risks of acute and chronic health effects for nail technicians. The objectives of this study were to investigate differences in VOC exposure and self-reported symptoms among formal and informal nail technicians and assess the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks using a probabilistic approach. A questionnaire was administered to 54 formal and 60 informal nail technicians to elicit information on sociodemographic characteristics, work conditions, and self-reported symptoms. Passive sampling was employed to measure 60 personal breathing zone concentrations of VOCs among 20 nail technicians (both formal and informal) over three consecutive days, along with 29 passive samples for formaldehyde in the informal sector. All VOC concentrations, except formaldehyde, were below occupational exposure limits. Sixty percent of the informal nail technicians and fifty-two percent of the formal nail technicians reported health-related symptoms; however, the difference was not statistically significant (p &gt; 0.05). The median and 95th percentile non-cancer risks exceeded the hazard coefficient for 2-propanol in all technicians and MMA among informal technicians. The benzene and formaldehyde cancer risk estimates (medians and 95th percentiles) exceeded the US Environmental Protection Agency cancer risk threshold of 1 \u00d7 10\u22126. These findings indicate that nail technicians are at risk of developing acute and chronic health effects from long-term low-level exposure to VOCs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22030330","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T07:46:57Z","timestamp":1740383217000},"page":"330","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Health Risk Assessment of Nail Technicians in the Formal and Informal Sectors of Johannesburg, South Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9586-9320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Goitsemang","family":"Keretetse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7815-3718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gill","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1750-3715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derk","family":"Brouwer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3961\/jpmph.2014.47.3.169","article-title":"Assessment of occupational symptoms and chemical exposures for nail salon technicians in Daegu City, Korea","volume":"47","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. 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