{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T19:21:25Z","timestamp":1789240885076,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740960000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Effective wildfire smoke risk and evacuation communication is urgently needed to avert unnecessary deaths as wildfires increase in frequency and intensity. Human exposure to wildfires has doubled in the last two decades. Low-income, marginalized communities are the most disadvantaged in their ability to respond. A systematic literature review of wildfire and wildfire smoke risk communication research between 2014 and 2024 was conducted. Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched using the keywords \u201cwildfire\u201d, \u201ccommunication\u201d, \u201cwildfire smoke\u201d, \u201crisk\u201d, and \u201cpublic health\u201d, resulting in 23 studies. The findings revealed marginalized communities were ill-prepared to respond to wildfires and take protective action against wildfire smoke. The findings were summarized across eight areas: the needs of marginalized communities to respond to wildfires, the role of trusted messengers to disseminate wildfire and smoke risk messaging, using diverse channels, timing and frequency considerations for disseminating messages, time-sensitive evacuation versus wildfire smoke risk messaging, targeted messaging for subgroups, the importance of coordinating messages across agencies and local government, and government perspective. Theory did not guide these research efforts with the exception of one study, and most studies were qualitative. The literature did not report on distinguishing indoor from outdoor protective action against smoke risk, reaching vulnerable communities such as nursing and older adult facilities, and postfire messaging. Evidence is needed on these fronts, along with experimental messaging studies to determine the most persuasive messages for motivating protective actions against wildfire and smoke risk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22030368","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T09:04:49Z","timestamp":1740992689000},"page":"368","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Wildfire and Smoke Risk Communication: A Systematic Literature Review from a Health Equity Focus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Sofia","family":"Sandoval","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Society & Behavior, School of Population & Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA 92797, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica","family":"Bui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Society & Behavior, School of Population & Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA 92797, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suellen","family":"Hopfer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Society & Behavior, School of Population & Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA 92797, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"CAMS2023 (2025, February 16). A Year of Intense Global Wildfire Activity. Global Fire Assimilation System (GFAS), Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service (CAMS)., Available online: https:\/\/atmosphere.copernicus.eu\/2023-year-intense-global-wildfire-activity."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Dowdy, A., Purcell, L., Boulter, S., and Moura, L. (2025, February 15). Wildfires Under Climate Change: A Burning Issue. Frontiers 2022 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concerns Chapter 2. Available online: https:\/\/wedocs.unep.org\/20.500.11822\/38061."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2024, November 14). Ask NASA Climate, Available online: https:\/\/science.nasa.gov\/earth\/climate-change\/the-climate-connections-of-a-record-fire-year-in-the-us-west\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16006","article-title":"Global Increase in Wildfire Risk Due to Climate-Driven Declines in Fuel Moisture","volume":"28","author":"Ellis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11770","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1607171113","article-title":"Impact of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Wildfire Across Western US Forests","volume":"113","author":"Abatzoglou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.2111\/REM-D-09-00151.1","article-title":"Climate Change in Western US Deserts: Potential for Increased Wildfire and Invasive Annual Grasses","volume":"64","author":"Abatzoglou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rangel. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06444-3","article-title":"Climate Warming Increases Extreme Daily Wildfire Growth Risk in California","volume":"621","author":"Brown","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06522-6","article-title":"The contribution of wildfire to PM_2.5 trends in the USA","volume":"622","author":"Burke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Western Fire Chiefs Association (2024, April 22). Understanding the Different Types of Wildfire. Available online: https:\/\/wfca.com\/wildfire-articles\/types-of-wildfire\/."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tedim, F., and Leone, V. (2020). The Dilemma of Wildfire Definition: What it Reveals and What it Implies. Front. For. Glob. Change, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/ffgc.2020.553116"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21097","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c06653","article-title":"Wildfire Smoke: Health Effects, Mechanisms, and Mitigation","volume":"58","author":"Lei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-020-00267-4","article-title":"Health Effects of Wildfire Smoke in Children and Public Health Tools: A Narrative Review","volume":"31","author":"Holm","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.18768","article-title":"Canadian Wildfire Smoke and Asthma Syndrome Emergency Department Visits in New York City","volume":"330","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.119732","article-title":"Smoke and the Eyes: A Review of the Harmful Effects of Wildfire Smoke and Air Pollution on the Ocular Surface","volume":"309","author":"Jaiswal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168134","article-title":"Associations Between Short-term Exposure to Wildfire Particulate Matter and Respiratory Outcomes: A systematic review","volume":"907","author":"Jiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoforum.2019.12.015","article-title":"Communities and responsibility: Narratives of Place-identity in Australian Bushfire Landscapes","volume":"109","author":"Reid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geoforum"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batdorf, B., and McGee, T.K. (2023). Wildfire Smoke and Protective Actions in Canadian Indigenous Communities. Atmosphere, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos14081204"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035013","DOI":"10.1088\/2752-5309\/ad6209","article-title":"Repeat Wildfire and Smoke Experiences Shared by Four Communities in Southern California: Local Impacts and Community Needs","volume":"2","author":"Hopfer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davies, I.P., Haugo, R.D., Robertson, J.C., and Levin, P.S. (2018). The Unequal Vulnerability of Communities of Color to Wildfire. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0205825"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1007\/s10614-017-9727-z","article-title":"Insights into the Effects of Cognitive Factors and Risk Attitudes on Fire Risk Mitigation Behavior","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Econ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.02.012","article-title":"Effectiveness of Public Health Messaging and Communication Channels During Smoke Events: A rapid systematic review","volume":"193","author":"Fish","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"236","article-title":"Advanced Data Analysis: The Art and Magic of Interpretation","volume":"Volume 10","author":"Tracy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025012","DOI":"10.1088\/2752-5309\/acdbe3","article-title":"Learning to Live With Smoke: Characterizing Wildland Fire and Prescribed Fire Smoke Risk Communication in Rural Washington","volume":"1","author":"Wood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"607","article-title":"Wildfire Smoke Risk Communication Efficacy: A Content Analysis of Washington State\u2019s 2018 Statewide Smoke Event Public Health Messaging","volume":"27","author":"Marecaux","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Public Health Manag. Pract."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shellington, E.M., Nguyen, P.D.M., Rideout, K., Barn, P., Lewis, A., Baillie, M., Lutz, S., Allen, R.W., Yao, J., and Carlsten, C. (2022). Public Health Messaging for Wildfire Smoke: Cast a Wide Net. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.773428"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1089\/hs.2015.0060","article-title":"Longitudinal Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response to Wildfire, Bastrop County, Texas","volume":"14","author":"Kirsch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Secur."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GH000199","article-title":"Smoke Sense Initiative Leverages Citizen Science to Address the Growing Wildfire-Related Public Health Problem","volume":"3","author":"Rappold","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geohealth"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hano, M.C., Prince, S.E., Wei, L., Hubbell, B.J., and Rappold, A.G. (2020). Knowing Your Audience: A Typology of Smoke Sense Participants to Inform Wildfire Smoke Health Risk Communication. Front. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00143"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1080\/08941920.2022.2113487","article-title":"Wildfire Smoke Clean Air Centers: Identifying Barriers and Opportunities for Improvement from California Practitioner and Community Perspectives","volume":"36","author":"Treves","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, L.M., D\u2019Evelyn, S.M., Errett, N.A., Bostrom, A., Desautel, C., Alvarado, E., Ray, K., and Spector, J.T. (2022). When People See Me, They Know Me; They Trust What I Say: Characterizing the Role of Trusted Sources for Smoke Risk Communication in the Okanogan River Airshed Emphasis Area. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-14816-z"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aminpour, P., Helgeson, J.F., and Ferraro, P.J. (2022). The Choice of Message and Messenger to Drive Behavior Change That Averts the Health Impacts of Wildfires: An Online Randomized Controlled Experiment. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-14801-6"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walsh, E.I., Sargent, G., Cevik-Compiegne, B., Roberts, M., Palfrey, N., Gooyers-Bourke, l., Vardoulakis, S., and Laachir, K. (2022). Bushfire Smoke and Children\u2019s Health\u2014Exploring a Communication Gap. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191912436"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marfori, M.T., Campbell, S.L., Garvey, K., McKeown, S., Veitch, M., Wheeler, A.J., Borchers-Arriagada, N., and Johnston, F.H. (2020). Public Health Messaging During Extreme Smoke Events: Are We Hitting the Mark?. Front. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00465"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slavik, C.E., Chapman, D.A., Cohen, A.S., Bendefaa, N., and Peters, E. (2024). Clearing the Air: Evaluating Institutions\u2019 Social Media Health Messaging on Wildfire and Smoke Risks in the US Pacific Northwest. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17907-1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2023.104182","article-title":"Identifying Risk Information Needs of Rural Communities Impacted by Wildfire Smoke: A Mental Models Approach","volume":"100","author":"VanderMolen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choy, A., Shellington, E.M., Rideout, K., Roushorne, M., Joshi, P., and Carlsten, C. (2023). Engaging Interested Parties to Optimize Wildfire Smoke Communication in Canada: Challenges with Initiating Change. Front. Public Health, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1268249"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoshiko, S., Buckman, J.R., Jones, C.G., Yeomans, K.R., Mello, A., Thilakaratne, R., Sergienko, E., Allen, K., Bello, L., and Rappold, A.G. (2023). Responses to Wildfire and Prescribed Fire Smoke: A Survey of a Medically Vulnerable Adult Population in the Wildland-Urban Interface, Mariposa County, California. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021210"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2536","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.13828","article-title":"Unpacking the Realities and Complexities of Sensemaking: Government Practitioners\u2019 Experiences of Emergency Risk Communication","volume":"42","author":"Thomas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Errett, N.A., Roop, H.A., Pendergrast, C., Kramer, C.B., Doubleday, A., Tran, K.A., and Isaksen, T.M.B. (2019). Building a Practice-Based Research Agenda for Wildfire Smoke and Health: A Report of the 2018 Washington Wildfire Smoke Risk Communication Stakeholder Synthesis Symposium. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16132398"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seale, H., Trent, M., Marks, G.B., Shah, S., Chughtai, A.A., and Macintyre, C.R. (2023). Exploring the Use of Masks for Protection Against the Effects of Wildfire Smoke Among People with Preexisting Respiratory Conditions. BMC Public Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-17274-3"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humphreys, A.B.C., Walker, E.G., Bratman, G.N., and Errett, N.A. (2022). What Can We Do When The Smoke Rolls In? An Exploratory Qualitative Analysis of the Impacts of Rural Wildfire Smoke on Mental Health and Wellbeing, and Opportunities for Adaptation. BMC Public Health, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-12411-2"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1080\/17538068.2024.2320478","article-title":"Breathing on the Job: Investigating Predictors of Air Quality Protective Actions and Information Seeking Among Outdoor Workers","volume":"17","author":"Bice","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Commun. Healthc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cowie, C.T., Wheeler, A.J., Tripovich, J.S., Porta-Cubas, A., Dennekamp, M., Vardoulaskis, S., Goldman, M., Sweet, M., Howard, P., and Johnston, F. (2021). Policy Implications for Protecting Health from the Hazards of Fire Smoke. A Panel Discussion Report from the Workshop Landscape Fire Smoke: Protecting Health in an Era of Escalating Fire Risk. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18115702"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.17269\/s41997-018-0070-5","article-title":"Lived Experience of a Record Wildfire Season in the Northwest Territories, Canada","volume":"109","author":"Dodd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1080\/13549839.2018.1508205","article-title":"Place, Human Agency and Community Resilience\u2013considerations for Public Health Management of Smoke from Prescribed Burning","volume":"23","author":"Lyth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Local Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2011.01647.x","article-title":"The Protective Action Decision Model: Theoretical Modifications and Additional Evidence","volume":"32","author":"Lindell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s10935-021-00643-2","article-title":"Health Information Source Characteristics Matter: Adapting the Dissemination of an HPV Vaccine Intervention to Reach Latina and Vietnamese Women","volume":"42","author":"Hopfer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Prim. Prev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1080\/13669877.2018.1501597","article-title":"The Protective Action Decision Model: When Householders Choose Their Protective Response to Wildfire","volume":"22","author":"Strahan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Risk Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdrr.2020.101955","article-title":"Multi-hazard Perceptions at Long Valley Caldera, California, USA","volume":"52","author":"Peers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2580","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.13140","article-title":"Retweeting Risk Communication: The Role of Threat and Efficacy","volume":"38","author":"Vos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04023009","DOI":"10.1061\/NHREFO.NHENG-1724","article-title":"Ember Alerts: Assessing Wireless Emergency Alert Messages in Wildfires Using the Warning Response Model","volume":"24","author":"Kuligowski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sutton, J., Gibson, C.B., Spiro, E.S., League, C., and Fitzburgh, S.M. (2015). What it Takes to Get Passed on: Message Content, Style, and Structure as Predictors of Retransmission in the Boston Marathon Bombing Response. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134452"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e317","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.5927","article-title":"IDEAS (Integrate; design; assess, and share): A Framework and Toolkit of Strategies for the Development of More Effective Digital Interventions to Change Health Behavior","volume":"18","author":"Mummah","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vien, M.H., Ivey, S.L., Boyden, H., Holm, S., and Neuhauser, L. (2024). A Scoping Review of Wildfire Smoke Risk Communications: Issues, Gaps, and Recommendations. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17681-0"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155432","article-title":"Change of Air Quality Knowledge, Perceptions, Attitudes, and Practices During and Post-wildfires in the United States","volume":"836","author":"Ang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Total Env."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118645734.ch2","article-title":"Approaches to Communicating Risk","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Lundgren","year":"2013","journal-title":"Risk Communication: A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s10551-019-04215-7","article-title":"Can Apps Make Air Pollution Visible? Learning about Health Impacts Through Engagement with Air Quality Information","volume":"161","author":"Delmas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Bus. Ethics"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/3\/368\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:46:18Z","timestamp":1760028378000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/3\/368"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph22030368"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph22030368","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]}}}