{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T04:16:00Z","timestamp":1780632960735,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]],"date-time":"2025-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746057600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) is one of the primary risk factors for acute lower respiratory infection (ARI) morbidity and mortality among children in low-income settings. This study aimed to examine the relative contribution of residing in deprived neighbourhoods and exposure to HAP on the occurrence of ARI among children using data from the 2014\u20132015 Chad Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). Methods: We applied multilevel modelling techniques to survey data of 2882 children from 372 communities to compute the odds ratio (OR) for the occurrence of ARI between children of respondents exposed to clean fuels (e.g., electricity, liquid petroleum gas, natural gas, and biogas) and respondents exposed to polluting fuel (e.g., kerosene, coal\/lignite, charcoal, wood, straw\/shrubs\/grass, and animal dung). Results: The results showed that children exposed to household polluting fuels in Chad were 215% more likely to develop ARI than those not exposed to household air pollution (OR = 3.15; 95% CI 2.41 to 4.13). Further analysis revealed that the odds of ARI were 185% higher (OR = 2.85; 95% CI 1.73 to 4.75) among children living in rural residents and those born to teenage mothers (OR = 2.75; 95% CI 1.48 to 5.15) who were exposed to household polluting fuels compared to their counterparts who were not exposed. In summary, the results of the study show that the risk of ARI is more common among children who live in homes where household air-polluting cooking fuel is widely used, those living in rural areas, those living in socioeconomically deprived neighbourhoods and from the least wealthy households, and those born to teenage mothers in Chad. Conclusions: In this study, an independent relative contribution of variables, such as HAP from cooking fuel, neighbourhood deprivation, living in rural areas, being from a low-income household, having a mother who is a manual labourer worker, and being given birth to by a teenage mother, to the risk of ARI among children is established.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22050710","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,4]],"date-time":"2025-05-04T20:42:37Z","timestamp":1746391357000},"page":"710","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Effect of Household Air Pollution and Neighbourhood Deprivation on the Risk of Acute Respiratory Infection Among Under-Five Children in Chad: A Multilevel Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5832-2403","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olatunde","family":"Aremu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham B15 3TN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omolara O.","family":"Aremu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoonoses, Health & Infectious Disease Control, City Operations, Birmingham City Council, Birmingham B1 1BB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2226","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13779-8","article-title":"Where and why are 10 million children dying every year?","volume":"361","author":"Black","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"UNICEF (2014). 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